Theme and Storyline

Trends in Animal Exhibition.

Landscape or habitat immersion design, the concept of displaying animals in the context of nature rather than in the context of architecture, has gained wide acceptance around the world.

Immersion Design

Immersion Design is a concept with a goal to immerse animals and guests in the same re-created theme area, habitat or landscape. Animals and visitors are separated by hidden barriers. In its purest sense, landscape immersion design takes the position "nature is the best model". This concept has gradually gained world-wide acceptance and is often considered the best practice.

"The landscape immersion approach arose from the naturalistic exhibit traditions of Hagenbeck and Akeley. It is responsive to our increased concern to protect wild animals and wild places by educating and involving urban populations. This approach benefited mutually from parallel development in exhibit materials technology and craft and the introduction of contextual exhibits in museums.

Use of immersion exhibits seems to give great scope to affective learning and, based on its present popularity, adds important recreational dimensions as well. “ Jon Coe "Landscape Immersion —- Origins and Concepts "

Landscape or habitat immersion gained wide acceptance before the concept was expanded to include vernacular architectural and cultural environments in zoo exhibits. This concept was first developed by Carl Hagenbeck in 1907 and was revived and expanded in the 1980's. It adds an important human dimension to immersion design tremendously increasing education opportunities and value.

"This concept has made a strong come back... in recent zoo exhibits at Zoo Atlanta, Bronx Zoo and Woodland Park Zoo. These current exhibits emphasise the interrelationship between traditional peoples and wildlife, point to a more naturalistic lifestyle alternative and, in some cases, alert visitors to the parallel extinction of wilderness and traditional cultures." - Jon Coe "The Evolution of Zoo Animal Exhibits "

Cultural Resonance

Activity-based design emphasises behavioural management as advocated by Hediger in the 1950's. This concept was updated in the 1980's to integrate the fields of behavioural enrichment, animal training, husbandry and design. Improved animal activity and fitness levels result in more active and interesting animal displays.

"Activity-based design begins with the premise that the animals' long term well-being is paramount and that environments, programs and procedures which advance this goal are frequently of great interest to the visiting public. Healthy animal with stimulating behavioral choices tend to be more active. Therefore, opportunity-rich animal environments, enlightened animal care and caretaker devotion should all be made visible to the public within a setting which demonstrates the animals' innate competence." - Jon Coe "Entertaining Zoo Visitors and Zoo Animals: An Integrated Approach"

Activity Based Design

This trend which increase affiliative behaviour and reduces aggression in social species, including people, gives a much better message about animals and their place in nature.

"'Building a bond between people and the planet', the Louisville Zoo motto, describes one of the major roles of zoos. Building upon the work of Hediger, Lorenz, Skinner and contemporary behaviourists, affiliative design provides positive opportunities to enhance the natural sociability of people and other primates, encouraging them to enjoy each other's company. What could be more natural? What could be more important for building the early and lasting bonds needed to support the long-term survival of endangered primates and other species in our human-dominated world?” - Jon Coe "Increasing Affiliative Behaviour Between Zoo Animals and Zoo Visitors"

Affiliate Design

Rotation Design.

The most recent step in exhibit design is the rotation exhibit. Having various groups of animals transfer between different exhibit areas on a regular basis during the day can combine all the concepts of immersion design, themes, storylines and culture elements with activity-based training to add to the impact of zoo exhibits for both visitors and animals.

"Immersion exhibits have changed animal zoo exhibition using 'nature' as the model for international best practice, yet even the most diverse zoo habitats don't provide animals occupations and animals soon become habituated with resulting decrease in animal activity and visual interest for the public. At Louisville's (Kentucky USA) Islands Exhibits orang-utan, tapir, babirusa, siamang and Sumatran tiger rotate through four habitat areas on a randomly determined schedule. Five years of behavioural observations show normal stress levels, increased activity and previously unseen natural behaviours.”- Jon Coe "Mixed Species Rotation Exhibits"

Function.

function

ˈfʌŋ(k)ʃ(ə)n/

noun

noun : 1. an activity that is natural to or the purpose of a person or thing.

"bridges perform the function of providing access across water"

verb : 1. work or operate in a proper or particular way.

"her liver is functioning normally"

Even though function comes from the Latin “fungi” meaning to perform, it would seem more appropriate for describing activity than programme. However, the idea of function as a performed action has long been overtaken by its usage within the modern world. Functionalism is the study of ergonomic actions, involving measuring efficiencies and tolerances. What is important is that function never directly dictate design, but rather sets the conditions and parameters in which the creative limit of the project abide in.

Aesthetics simply, is the study of beauty. Specifically the reason to why we find something beautiful and the philosophy of whether beauty exists objectively. This makes it very similar to ethics , where both fields work hard to understand how humans decided whether or not the object in which they are observing falls into which category. Both of them concern value judgements and moral priorities and therefore unlike logic and some philosophies, aesthetics in not based on rules. Aesthetics and ethics are rather about balancing subjective and objective inputs in which results in a common personal decision.

In architecture, aesthetics concern how particular interests and desires become manifest as spatial strategies. For example, the Elephant House at Zurich Zoo and the Orang-Utan exhibit located at Perth Zoo, Australia.

Elephant House, Zurich Zoo

The Elephant House at Zurich Zoo by the Swiss firm Markus Schietsch Architekten. The Kaeng Krachan Elephant Park Zoo Zurich offers six times as much room as the previous enclosure, creating an environmentt where the elephants are able to roam freely between indoor and outdoor spaces. Markus Schietsch Architekten collaborate with landscape firm Lorenze Eugster and engineering office Walt + Gamarini on the project, creating a environment that can house up to 10 elephants at a time.

The building’s most prominent feature is its elaborate wooden grid shell interspersed with 271 ETFE plastic skylights - all in varying shapes and sizes, recreating the impression of light filtered by tree branches.

"The roof unfolds its atmospheric effect – as if through a canopy of trees, the sunlight filters through the intricate roof structure, generating constantly changing light atmospheres.”

The 11,000-square-metre complex boasts several different watering holes, allowing elephants to swim and bathe. There is also a pool with a glass wall, providing an underwater viewpoint for visitors to observe the animals swimming from a more unusual angle.

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Giraffe House, Auckland Zoo

The Giraffe House at Auckland Zoo designed by Monk Mackenzie and Glamuzina Patterson, in addition to being aesthetically pleasing, offers a space to comfortably accommodate both its long-necked inhabitants and their human keepers. Although the slanting roof shapes give the building a slight chapel-like appearance, the reality is more carnal; the intersecting anatomy of these forms reflects one of the purposes of the house, which is to encourage the world’s tallest terrestrial mammals to copulate.

Flexibility was a primary objective of the shelter – due to the changing functional and physiological needs of the giraffe. Moveable doors and walls allow the space to be transformed. The four sliding exterior doors open to different yards that can be configured to allow for separate roaming areas for the giraffes. Keepers and vets use the mezzanine level to observe and interact with the giraffes. It also allows for small visitor groups to safely view the giraffes.

Analysis

Programme within architecture is all the imagined activities that take place within a building. The word despite being used in this context, still remains the same definition as if it were to be used in biology or computing meaning the causes for a person or animal to behave in a predetermined way. Although programming when used in this context may sound sinister, the way in which some animals in nature behave the way they do is conceptually identical to descriptions of how humans organise their spaces and the movement within them. Like how we can dictate the operations of a computer, we can predetermine the possible behaviour of the population through designation and affordances of space.

Programming is a scaleless quality, often incorrectly called "function". A bedroom, bathroom, living room are all programmes describing the intended activities of the space, as well as determining the qualities and needs of furnishing in order to make these activities possible. It can be purposely vague to maximise possible activities like a hall or stadium however, it can fall under "narrative" architecture which is the design go imagined conditions and scenarios such as the Giraffe House at Auckland Zoo designed to provide the animals space to copulate and the Öhringen Petting Zoo in Germany where interaction between to resident animals and the visitors are much encouraged.

ZSL London Zoo Sumatran Tiger Enclosure

Another enclosure designed with the idea of recreating a stimulating arboreal-like environment for animals provided interpretation of their physiology, intelligence and habitat is the Orang-Utan Exhibit at Perth Zoo. This project designed by Iredale Pedersen Hook Architects created a facility that consists of an elevated broad walk, exhibit furniture to 7 exhibits as well as provided renovations to the interior of an existing building constructed in the 1970s including pneumatic access doors from the building to the exhibit habitats. Due to the inquisitive nature of Orang-Utans, it is critical that the habitat is able to provide a stimulating environment. A particular Orang-Utan, Hsing Hsing, who has been diagnosed with type-2 diabetes have shown significant improvement in his disease as well as becoming more active after living in the exhibit for a few weeks.

The nesting platforms are critical as orang-utans build nests in their natural habitat and need to be able to do the same at their home at the Perth Zoo. The nesting platforms also support drinking points and water canons that the orang-utans can spray each other with as a behavioural enrichment activity. The bases of the poles support cordial and jam dip tubes providing further stimulation for the orang-utans as they make tools to remove the food from the tubes.

This project was executed under these strong values of habitat and biodiversity conservation that informed all aspects of the design, from the detailed industrial design and performance of the animal habitats to the longevity and maintenance costs of the facility were considered. Most importantly was the need to communicate the message of conservation to visitors to the exhibit.

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Orag-Utan Exhibit, Perth Zoo

Öhringen Petting Zoo, Germany

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Designed by Kresings Architektur, the ensemble’s formal shape interacts strongly with its use as well as its urban context. The exposed site, situated right by a pond allows the two contrasting heights of the buildings in combination with the fence to be conveyed easily, offering views to visitors of all ages walking by to the petting zoo. In this manner, the buildings appear very much as a whole, however remain subdivided and delicate in the natural surroundings by the depth and complexity provided by it’s lamellar-like facade of the aviary and stable.

The construction and orientation of the buildings are particularly designed in response to the State Horticulture Show alongside the veterinary office in order to be able to keeping the animals ( alpacas, kangaroos and nidus ) in an environment as natural as possible.

The usage of larch wood is the one of the outcomes as a result of close cooperation with the veterinaries. The wood is not only resisted and therefore sustainable, it does not require to be treated , eliminating the danger of poisoning the animals.

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When considering form, architectures have to take into account the difference between an infill building that fits tightly within its' site boundaries (leaving no unoccupied space on the site, except perhaps a defined outdoor courtyard) and a freestanding building located within a large expanse of parking. Without the aid of other space-defining forms such as trees, fences, level changes, and so forth, it is very difficult for a large space to be defined or satisfactorily articulated by most singular forms.

Shape, Mass/Scale, Scale and Proportion are some of the aspects that are to be taken into consideration in order to analyze or design an architectural form.

Shape :

Shape refers to the configuration of surfaces and edges of a two- or three-dimensional object. We perceive shape by contour or silhouette, rather than by detail.
Primary shapes, the circle, triangle, and square, are used to generate volumes known as "platonic solids." A circle generates the sphere and cylinder, the triangle produces the cone and pyramid, and the square forms the cube. Combinations of these platonic solids establish the basis for most architectural shapes and forms. Recent advances in digital technology have promoted the design and representation of more complex, non-platonic forms.
Volumetric shapes contain both solids and voids, or exteriors and interiors. Some shapes are formed through an additive process, while other shapes are conceptually subtracted from other solids.
Shape preferences may be culturally based or rooted in personal memory, or convention. For example, a dome or steeple may connote religious architecture in some cultures, while an American child's drawing of a house often depicts a square shape with pitched roof—a shape that many houses do not possess in our culture.

Mass/Scale :

Mass combines with shape to define form. Mass refers to the size or physical bulk of a building, and can be understood as the actual size, or size relative to context. This is where scale comes into play in our perception of mass.

Scale is not the same as size, but refers to relative size as perceived by the viewer. "Whenever the word scale is being used, something is being compared with something else." (Moore: 17) This relation is typically established between either familiar building elements (doors, stairs, handrails) or the human figure. Scale may be manipulated by the architect to make a building appear smaller or larger than its actual size. Multiple scales may exist within a single building façade, in order to achieve a higher level of visual complexity.
The term "human scale" is frequently used to describe building dimensions based on the size of the human body. Human scale is sometimes referred to as "anthropomorphic scale." Human scale may vary by culture and occupant age. For example, buildings occupied primarily by children, such as schools and child development centers, should be scaled in relation to the actual size of children.

Proportion :

In general, proportion in architecture refers to the relationship of one part to the other parts, and to the whole building. Numerous architectural proportioning systems have developed over time and in diverse cultures, but just a few specific examples are listed below.

Arithmetic: The Ancient Greeks used clear mathematical ratios for both visible and auditory phenomena, such as architecture and music. For instance, Pythagoras emphasized the importance of numbers. Originating in Antiquity, the "Golden Section" has been used by Renaissance theorists, modern and contemporary architects. The Golden Section or Golden Mean is both arithmetic and geometrical, and is prevalent in both the natural world and classical architectural design. It may be expressed as a:b = b (a+b). This relationship can be verbally described as: a is to b, as b is to the whole. The Golden Section is also apparent in the Fibonacci series of integers: 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55, etc. Each succeeding number is the sum of two previous numbers. This series forms the basis for a spiral, as found in the snail's shell or the spiral volutes of ionic column capitals.
Geometric: In Classical architecture, the diameter of a classical column provided a unit of measurement that established all the dimensions of the building, from overall dimensions to fine detail. This system works for any size of building, since the column unit fluctuates while the internal relationships remain constant. Drawings of the "classical orders" explain this set of relationships geometrically.
Harmonic: The ancient discovery of harmonic proportion in music was translated to architectural proportion. For instance, this system posits that when the ratio of 1:2, 2:3, or 3:4 is applied to buildings or rooms, harmonious proportion results. The early Renaissance architect Alberti credited the harmony of Roman architecture and the universe to this system. The Renaissance architect Palladio, along with Venetian musical theorists, developed a more complex system of harmonic proportion based on the major and minor third—resulting in the ratio of 5:6 or 4:5

Research.

aesthetics

iːsˈθɛtɪks,ɛsˈθɛtɪks/

noun

noun: aesthetics; noun: esthetics

a set of principles concerned with the nature and appreciation of beauty.
- the branch of philosophy which deals with questions of beauty and artistic taste.

The philosophy of aesthetics can be mastered by any designer if he follows these key elements listed below…

Mass and space
Proportion
Symmetry
Balance
Contrast

All these qualities are collectively important and can have an important impact on the design. However how beauty is perceived varies from one person to another, therefore making sure that architecture is functionally efficient is most important.

Aesthetics.

Programme.

programme

ˈprəʊɡram/

verb

verb: provide (a computer or other machine) with coded instructions for the automatic performance of a task.

"it is a simple matter to program the computer to recognize such symbols"

cause (a person or animal) to behave in a predetermined way.

"all members of a species are programmed to build nests in the same way"

Form.

form

fɔːm/

noun

noun : 1. the visible shape or configuration of something.

"the form, colour, and texture of the tree"

2. a particular way in which a thing exists or appears.

"essays in book form"

The final criteria that most architects take into consideration when designing and observing zoo architecture is form. Form in architecture is first of the all the plan drawing. It is the spatial articulation of functions, programme and aesthetics. Form is often conflated with style despite not being related. As have been previously discussed, style is an expression of ethics and therefore not intrinsically spatial. Form is only about space.

Analysis

The importance of form is perhaps one of the most contentiously debated subjects in contemporary architectural discourse. The dictum “form follows function,” repeated over the century since its first articulation, is the symbolic nexus around which arguments pertaining to form have been organised ever since. It remains relevant only in so far as it is precisely the function of form that remains contested. The inherent contradiction of the “functionalist” argument lies in the incommensurate equation of specific architectural responses (forms) to abstract social behaviours. This contradiction is based on a fundamental misunderstanding of social “functions,” resulting in the over-generalisation of nuanced forms of cultural production (work, leisure, home), that simultaneously ignored the temporal dimension of social interaction – how different kinds of work, leisure and domestics change over time. Following this logic, the modernists were compelled to create highly generic spaces, like the office tower, which have proven insufficient both formally and functionally.

Consumed with the post-structuralist analysis of “texts,” the post-modernists emphasised the nature of architectural forms as cultural signifiers. The underlying argument of their work relied on re-interpreting the architectural lexicon in ways that created symbolic associations and fissures with the past. Labouring under the compendious critique of literary theorists, like Jacques Derrida, the post-modernists focused on systems of elision, through which cultural referents were utilised in ways that essentially problematised their ultimate meaning (or reading). This kind of highly semantic re-contextualisation was applied both to traditional, historically recognisable and/or popular architectural forms (Venturi), and to modernist forms alike (Peter Eisenman), and represents a re-orientation away from the “form follows function” paradigm of modernism, towards a ethos best articulated as “form follows meaning.” For example,

Modernism.

Rejecting over the top decoration and focusing more on minimalism, Modernism became the single most dominant movement in 20th-century architecture and design. This also meant an introduction into a new style and philosophy of architecture and design associated with a more analytical approach to the function of buildings, a strict, rational use of ( often new ) materials and an openness to structural innovation. This movement also encompasses Futurism, Constructivism, De Stijl and Bauhaus. The style is most known for its :

asymmetrical compositions
use of general cubic or cylindrical shapes
flat roofs
use of reinforced concrete
metal and glass frameworks often resulting in large windows in horizontal bands
an absence of ornament or mouldings
a tendency for white or cream render

Plans would be loosely arranged, often with open-plan interiors. Modernist buildings include the The Barcelona Pavilion designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) redesigned by aniguchi along with Kohn Pedersen Fox in 2004.

Exerts from The Zoo Enclosure Standards, Switzerland published 2001

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Exerts from Containment Facilities Standard for Zoo Animals, New Zealand published 2007

Lion Gorge Melbourne Zoo

Due to the Sumatran tiger being one of the rarest subspecies of tiger with only approximately 300 individuals left in the wild, it was crucial that ZSL London Zoo create a new facility that will not only introduce a new breeding programme but create a space that allows experts to gain valuable information about the animals that can later be applied to conservation projects.

With the project bearing the pressure of being such global significance, there were a lot of elements to take into account when designing the new structure. The primary focus is of course on animal welfare, conservation and the creation of a habitat that is able to replicate the animals’ natural habitat - rather than the creation of an architectural masterpiece.

Our goal was to seek out the latest technologies and designs that could match our husbandry and habitat requirements while still satisfying visitor needs.’ - Robin Fitzgerald ( Project Manager )

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Striking the balance of animal privacy and patron entertainment is a test. OLA and team with Melbourne Zoo just about perfect the process. A winding path wraps around multiple display ‘windows’ to provide framed views into the lion habitat creates a complete visual connection, allowing the animal to come right up to visitors, enabling that all-important emotional connection. Visitors and lions seeking respite from the elements can easily find shelter and private space.

“Built environments have been a part of exhibits for a long time but often disguised as mud, or rock-faces or themed to visually link the exhibit to a pre-conceived idea of primitive architecture of a region. We think a contemporary architectural approach helps to explain the reality of the conservation issues at hand. Architecture can become part of the education process and tool to help us better understand how to conserve various species.” - Phil Snowdon, principal at OLA architects

From a habitat perspective the zoo enclosure clearly needed generous proportions, especially in height - the Sumatran tiger is a keen climber with a preference for observing its terrain from a high vantage point and can boast an impressive vertical jumping ability of up to five metres.

“The project demanded a large, fully enclosed secure environment whose barrier was as invisible as possible. Standard building construction and engineering methods are not suitable for good zoo projects, the key is to adapt materials and technology to suit the purpose.” Mike Kozdon, Wharmby Kozdon Architects

The design concept for the new ape house picks up the characteristic themes of ridge, valley and forest. The new enclosure for African apes is situated at the highest topographical point of the landscape park and takes the form of an artificial ridge. The building twists in an S-shape between the existing stock of mature trees, and appears to burrow into the ground at its curving ends. This impression is created by two greened, curving, shell-like roof surfaces that rise to a height of 7.5 metres out of the neighbouring landscape park. These two skins, which meet to form the mountain ridge, house an enclosure for gorillas on one side and an enclosure for bonobos on the other. A pathway for visitors leads between the two indoor enclosures with room-high glazing affording a view over the neighbouring landscape. The monolithic appearance of the concrete construction of the indoor enclosures inside the “mountain ridge” contrasts with the open, greened system of outdoor enclosures that are fashioned as a natural extension of the greened roofscape and are covered in part by a lightweight steel mesh construction.

The lightweight net of steel mesh is carried by a “forest” made of slender, inclined steel columns. The construction serves as a system of artificial tree trunks that the bonobos can climb up and rest on. Artificial lianas, hammocks and sleeping nests slung from the roof supports serve as branches in the forest canopy. The interleaved arrangement of outdoor and indoor enclosures, and of topography and building, results in a structure that is a harmonious part of the landscape.

The terraced outdoor enclosures have been designed as a near-natural counterpart to the indoor enclosures. The bonobo enclosures are covered by a wire mesh and contain shrubbery, climbing plants and trees that provide the apes with more secluded spots that they can withdraw to.

The outdoor enclosures for the gorillas have been designed as an expansive open natural landscape. The existing trees in the park have been incorporated into the enclosure and their extensive canopies provide natural shade for the primates. An artificial rocky landscape at the rear forms a boundary. By augmenting the existing trees with trunks to climb on, watercourses, shallow pools, marshy areas and a ditch, the outdoor enclosure corresponds to the diverse topography of the gorillas’ natural, wooded habitat.

Mood Board.

Functionalism is the study of ergonomic actions, involving measuring efficiencies and tolerances. A function has gradually become purely mathematic. For example, describing a kitchen as a functional space would be to assume that the kitchen is a function of cooking. Such statement obviously does not make sense as cooking is the “aphorism for all possible parameters implicated in making meals” and the kitchen only acts as a space that allows such action to happen. Without it, people are still able to cook outdoors. As a result of such distortion of the meaning of the word function, it would be more accurate to say that cooking is the programme of the kitchen, not the function.

Today, when we look at a building’s function we must take into account all the invisible parameters that cause it to exist not only just the concerning its occupancy. Finance, planning, regulations, standards and environmental factors are all functional parameters that influence programme and form.

For example, durning the time that the modernist movement was receiving a lot of attention, the ideology that form follows function was also caught on. This paired with the advances in medical studies and desire for sterilisation produced zoo exhibits that were easy to clean. This meant concrete everywhere.

Since the mid-20 century, the environment awareness and human right ethics has become more wildly known, giving way to animal rights as well. In 1950, Hediger wrote “Wild Animals in Captivity” which opened the public’s eyes to the idea of practices and exhibit design based on an animal’s natural history. As well as advances in healthcare, animals in captivity began to be treated for both physical and mental health.

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As soon as Sinead explained the Report and the various styles in which a could write my report, I knew almost instantly that I wanted to write my report on Zoo Architecture. With Zoo architecture covering a wide variety of topics with lots of elements to consider , I knew that I had to narrow my subject down in order to be able to comfortably explore and analyse the subject within the 5000 words limit. In order to do this, I have decided to come up with a question that I will discuss throughout the report. I have chosen to write about Zoo Architecture as I, myself work at a zoo and despite all of the good things the zoo has done, I feel that some enclosure designs are ought to be re-visited to improve the quality of living of the animals inhabiting that enclosure. Therefore, the question " How does the function of the Zoo implement Zoo design" is something I would like to explore further within my report.

Over the years, exhibits have become more and more 'authentic' with the rise of animal welfare. Zurich zoo's ELephant house for example, tries to replicate the aesthetics found in nature by creating an elaborate wooden lattice littered with over 270 ETFE skylights to recreate the effect of sunlight filtering through branches, whereas the Orang-Utan enclosure tries to recreate the function as well as the aesthetics of an arboreal-like environment via nesting platforms and ropes that allow the animals to easily manuver around the exhibit. Both enclosures even though are considered architectural masterpieces, their main priority is to closely simulate the wild in order to make its residents feel as home as possible.

Above all, the Programme concerns what the building is built to do or how the building can provide space for a specific use. For example, the Giraffe House at Auckland Zoo even though very structurally pleasing, is not only built for its 6 metre giants with a a slanting roof that mimics the natural built of the animals, encouraging them to copulate but also for the caretakers by providing a place where the they can closely monitor the gentle giants without feeling threatened.In the same way, the Öhringen Petting Zoo are built with the goal of encouraging interaction between animal and human in mind therefore every littler detail right down to the building materials used are not only sustainable but they require no treatment therefore eliminating any danger of poisoning the animals and visitors alike . As you can see, both facilities are designed and built with a specific purpose in mind therefore in these cases, Programme determines Design.

Function of a building, even though use to be very similar if no the same as the programme, now concerns more about the outside factors and how they have impacted and determined the design of the exhibits. Factors such as The Zoo Enclosure Standards published by Switzerland in 2001 and The Containment Facilities Standard for Zoo Animals published later in 2007 are only a small part in which Zoos have to take into account when housing and recreating a habitat for its residents. All of this started when the Modernism Movement triggered a rise in not only in human right ethics but also a rise in animal welfare as well. There has also been scientists and animal behaviourists here and there conducting studies and papers concerning the change of various species’ behaviour when kept in captivity, one in which are felids. Due to their natural “stalking” behaviour, it is quite challenging to be able to recreate an exhibit that allows the animals as much stimulant as its wild counterpart, not only physically but psychologically. Therefore, which such detailed study made, Zoos can now provide stimulating exhibits as well as develop existing exhibits for their residents that will make them feel at home in such an unnatural environment.

Last but not least, the Form of a building explores the physical bulk of the building ( i.e its actual size relative to its context ) as well as its relationship in regards of it surrounding environment. There are throw main element in which architectures take into account when designing a building - Shape, Mass/Scale and Proportion. In recent years buildings concerning nature such as Zoo exhibits and Conservation facilities are built to blend into its surroundings whilst still provided a safe and secure environments for its residents leading to an increase use of materials such as steel mesh where despite its unimposing appearance, creates a very strong barrier protecting its inhabitants.

Enclosure for African Apes, Wilhelma Zoo

“Setting the glass as a barrier to the impact of a fully grown lion was probably the biggest challenge. We had a facade engineer calculate the impact of a lion running full steam into the glass. This resulted in Viridian manufacturing a custom make up of various sheets of interlayers and glass. The visitor cannot read the thickness and so we hope they will feel a little vulnerable at times.”

- Phil Snowden when asked about design challenges

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Wildlife Observation Pavilion Zoo Berne

The new Wildlife observation Pavilion at Bern Zoo is situated amongst mature trees and the existing animal enclosures. Like an animal skin, the golden-green shimmering mosaic façade clings to the exterior walls and the roof, while the interiors continue the metaphor with their dark-red tones. Large gold-framed observation windows open out onto the woods and the zoo enclosures. A covered shelter serves multiple uses, providing a place for jazz matinees or barbecue parties as well as a weather-protected location from which visitors can observe wolves, marmots and small mammals. Family-friendly and disabled toilets, accessible for all zoo visitors from the park’s main promenade, complete the pavilion.

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The Lion department is a new addition to the Safari Park , opened in 2017.The department is home to 20 lions, 16 females and 4 males. The Lion Department falls under the Tiger Department and uses what used to be Zone 1 Tiger Enclosure to house the new residents. Therefore I thought that it will be interesting to study to lions alongside the tigers to see how the enclosure design caters to its new inhabitants.

Brief Background on African Lions.

The Lion Department.

Size :

1.40 metres to 2.50 metres

Weight :

Top Speed : 35 mph

Diet :

Carnivore
Natural Prey : Antelope, Warthog, Zebra
Unlike other felines, Lions are not solitary hunters but instead the Lionesses work together in order to chase down and catch their prey with each female having a different strategic role.
This strategy allows them to kill animals that are both faster and much larger than they are including Buffalo, Wildebeest and even Giraffe. Depending on the abundance and variety of prey species within their territory, Lions primarily catch Gazelle, Zebra and Warthog along with a number of Antelope species by following the herds across the open grasslands.

Behaviour :

Lives in small groups called prides
- A pride is made up of 5-15 related females and their cubs along with a generally single male (small groups of 2 or 3 though are not uncommon).
Very Social with distinct hierarchies within the prides
Females are usually the ones out hunting
- The Lionesses in the pride hunt together meaning that they are not only more successful on their trips, but they are also able to catch and kill animals that are both faster than them and much bigger.
The Males will look after their young
- Due to their enormous size, male Lions actually do hardly any of the hunting as they are often slower and more easily seen than their female counterparts.

Preliminary Evaluation of Environmental Enrichment Techniques for African Lions by D.M Powell.

Continuing from my summary of Summary of The Effects of the Captive Environment on Tiger Behavior as stated in Wild Tigers in Captivity: A Study of the Effects of the Captive Environment on Tiger Behaviour by Leigh Elizabeth Pitsko , I wanted to try and find another study paper that were specifically done on African Lions. Even though African Lions and Tigers both fall under the category of felids, they are very different both physically and behaviourally. In addition to results found in prior studies, introducing new food sources and alternative methods of food presentation were found to associated with increased activity and increased behavioural diversity as well as complexity. Enrichment has also led to increased use of exhibit space and decreased abnormal behaviour. Furthermore, enrichment has also been found to educate visitors. An exhibit that stimulates the animal’s natural environment as well as those that provide enrichment for their residents appear to be very well-received amongst visitors. For example, due to an increase in zoo staff and visitor interaction, the visitors seem to appreciate the efforts made in zoo to provide suitable environments for their animals more.

African Lions are harder to cater for in terms of enrichment and overall exhibit furnishing as in the wild, lions are inactive for an average of 20 - 21 hours per day, with two hours spent travelling through their pride’s territory and around 40 - 50 minutes of the day eating. However, hunting in the wild is not always successful and therefore feedings may be up to several days apart. Furthermore, as lions are social animals and a pride of typical lions may contain up to 15 members, most Zoos do not have the facilities or the funds to house an entire pride of lions, which in turns limits opportunities for these lions to demonstrate complex social behaviours that are often observed in the wild. Enrichment for these big cats must not only be intriguing but also durable and safe. Included within this study was an experiment done on four African lions, a pair of adults ( one being a seven-year-old male, the other, a six year-old female ) and a pair of subadult males. While the adults were captive-born and reared in the United States, the subadult males are captive-born in South Africa and brought over to the United States when they were three years old. The adults and the juvenile lions were kept separately and will be placed on exhibit on alternative days. The enclosure is designed to simulate the kopjes or rocky outcroppings on the African Savannah and when the lions are off exhibit, the animals have access to their night cages as well as two outdoor patios (3.38 X 1.95 X 1.17 M and 2.60 X 1.95 X 1.17 M ). While the indoor holding areas included elevated resting platform, the outdoor patios contained large logs on the floor with both areas having sources of freshwater available. Prior to data collection, both holding facilities are cleaned in order to eliminate distractions to the lions. All lions were fed at around 5 pm each day in weekly intervals, with the adults receiving approximately 3.10 KG of chopped horse meat and the cubs receiving approximately 1.40 KG of meat.

Zoos commonly provide their residents large blocks of ice that may or may not contain food within them. However, in a lot of cases, the blocks of ice are not manipulatable due to their size and shape , therefore the lions can only sit and lick the ice until the food inside becomes attainable. With this in mind, Powell thought that it may be different and interesting to provide the lions objects that they actually can manipulate by pushing the enrichment around the enclosure with their paws. The first of the enrichment provided were circular ice blocks containing a small frozen fish in it. The second of the enrichment included musk cologne ( chosen due to it being an animal-based scent ), peppermint extract ( chosen for its botanical relation to catnip ) , allspice and almond extract ( both chosen due to their strong odour and history of being used at other zoos ). These scents were then used separately at four randomly chosen locations within the enclosure. The third enrichment was hanging logs from the overhead cage mesh. These logs were used as they are part of the permanent enclosure furniture and hence receives little use as a result of the animal haven grown accustomed to it. However, due to time related limitations, the logs were not given to the juvenile males during this study. The Enrichments are presented in a largely random sequence as individual items become available at differentiating points throughout the study. The adult lions were also kept off exhibit for a span of seven days in the earlier stages of the study due to the lions showing signs of stress due to high temperatures. Therefore as a result of this minor alterations, enrichment items are being presented repeatedly on consecutive days.

The data was collected by observing the animals for two 30 minute intervals daily during the 24 days at 13:30 pm and 15:30 pm. These time intervals corresponded to periods of low keeper activity in the area. The first observation period was a baseline period in which no enrichments were present. Prior to the second observation, enrichment items were placed on patio 1. The observation period will then begin after the lions are given access back into the enclosure containing the enrichment. During these observations, the enclosure is also scanned repeatedly in 20 second intervals, with every tenth scan the location of the lions is recorded and a behaviour from the ethogram was recorded for each animal.

After processing all data collected, the actions, licking/gnawing , paw manipulation and sniffing/flehmen showed significant differences between the baseline and enriched condition in the adult lions. Licking and gnawing as well as paw manipulation increased significantly over baseline when ice was presenting whilst sniffing and flehmen increased significantly when the scents were placed in the enclosure. Paw manipulation also increased significantly when hanging logs were present. In cubs, these actions showed significant differences across all treatments with all of these behaviours increasing significantly when the ice containing fish is presented. Sniffing and Flehmen also increased significantly when scents were placed in the enclosure.

In conclusion, the different enrichment techniques had a roughly equal effect on the behaviour of the animals, with the frozen balls of ice eliciting most changes in the lions’ behaviour. However, even though the lions seemed to push the ice balls around until the ice has shattered, the fish inside were only eaten on one occasion, Even though several of the behaviours showed dramatic increases, the difference between the two groups of data failed to reach statistical significance. All of these enrichment techniques tested out brought a positive change in the behaviour of the lions. In particular, the lions appeared more alert and active and used more of the available enclosure space. Of all the scents used, peppermint extract received the strongest responses - this may be due to its botanical relations to catnip. The results from this study suggest that different types of enrichment will produce different changes in behaviour. This also emphasises the need for novel stimuli and manipulatable objects. The animals are likely to be stimulated only by objects that are alien to their daily care taking routine and may interact more with objects that are manipulatable. These enrichments provided should also take advantage of as many of the animal’s senses as possible instead of focusing on food.

Studying Dolphin Behaviour in a Semi-Natual Marine Enclosure : Couldn't we do it all in the Wild? by Amir Perelberg

The facility in which is study is conducted is located in a tower about 8 metres above a 14,000m2 continuous semi-natural marine enclosure, the “Dolphin-Reef” tourist facility. The site is at south of Eilat, Israel located at the northern part of the Gulf of Aqaba, the Red Sea. The dolphin group in which this study is done on was consisted in 1990 and included two males and three females brought from Taman Bay. Ever since, the dolphin group as varied due to new births, deaths and a translocation of three dolphins back to the Black Sea. Individual identification of the animals is based on distinct shapes, marks of dorsal fins, body size, girth, colour and individual body marks. This arrangement in which all age and gender classes live together in a single enclosure allowed a study of influences of social relationships and of the tendency of the dolphins to conduct cooperative behaviour to be done by staff.

The enclosure includes a sandy bottom marine habitat, scattered patches of sea grass beds and coral knolls and enriched with several artificial reef constructions. The bottom of the site gradually slopes from shore to about 15-20 metres depth along a plastic net, allowing sea water to flow through freely and marine organisms such as fish, cephalopods, jellyfish and sea turtles to enter the site. From 1997 to 2202, one or two underwater gates were open allowing unlimited access to the sea 24 hours a day, all year round. Most males ( adult and adolescent ) and the adolescent females frequently went into the open sea and have always returned back to the facility. However, during this period there were one adolescent male who went on a 9 day excursion. He was then later identifies at Dahab, about 125 km to the south of the site. All other excursions lasted less than a day. Unfortunately, due to unsupervised encounters between humans and dolphins along public beaches where humans would harass dolphins resulted in aggressive dolphin behaviours and therefore, the gates were closed and the dolphins were confined to the site ever since.

This non-subdivided enclosure allows the animals unrestricted social interactions and associations among all ages and genders. The animals prey on fish and invertebrates inside the enclosure as a supplement of daily feeding and an expression of their natural behaviours. The primary source of food comes from artificial feeding, where the dolphins will be fed by the trainers 5 times a day ( at 9:00, 10:00, 12:00, 14:00 and 16:00 pm). The morning feeding is off limits to the public and allows the staff to monitor the dolphin’s health and train the dolphins in preparation for medical procedures. The feeding is not contingent on performing any behaviours for show, the animals never display any show related behaviours during feeding time. During these feeding times, three fully guided and supervised programs are conducted. Swimming with the dolphins, diving with the dolphins and dolphin assisted therapy. Participation by the dolphins in all of these programs are completely voluntary and the animals are free to approach any person as well as have free access to larger shelter areas within the enclosure, away from all visitors. Tourists, on the other hand are not permitted to chase after, harass or touch the animals. Training sessions are also performed after feedings as an attraction and as a means of environmental as well as social enrichment for the animals. Dolphin participation to these activities are completely voluntary and food is never used as a reward.

The bottle-nose dolphin is known as a highly social species in which cooperative behaviours construct a large part of its behavioural repertoire. These behaviours include communal foraging and hunting, defence against predators and conspecifics, vigilance sharing, alliances for mating purposes and play behaviours.

The facility

An Echolocation Visualisation and Interface System for dolphin Research by Mats Amundin

As I’ve noticed an ongoing pattern that runs in all of the studies conducted where the enrichments used are of very similar nature which as a result, produce very similar conclusions. I have decided to find a new way in which researchers have used the animal’s natural behaviour and capability to provide enrichment as most animals such as the bottle-nose dolphins are highly intelligent and complex, therefore it would only be suiting if the enclosure in which they are kept are able to provide stimuli that can satisfy these behaviour not only physically but psychologically as well.

Although dolphins are known for using their rostrum to touch and manipulate objects, it was deemed of more interest to explore and study their main sensory system- their sonar. Dolphins have gone through extensive evolution and as a result of this, the animals have developed very advanced active sonar system based on the development of a unique sound generation and detection system. The ELVIS project i.e. the Echolocation Visualisation and Interface System is developed in order to explore the animals' sonar to its full dynamic potential. This project, designed by Mats Amudin, consisted of a matrix of hydrophones attached to a semi-transparent screen lowered in front of an acrylic panel in the dolphin pool and when a dolphin aims it sonar beam at the screen, the hydrophones will measure the received sound levels. Which are then transferred to a computer where they will be translated into a video image that corresponds to the dynamic sound pressure variations in the sonar beam and the location of the beam axis. Connected to all of the above was also a projection in which the image representing the location of the dolphin’s sonar beam is projected onto the back of the screen, allowing the dolphin immediate visual feedback to its sonar output.

When the screen was first presented to the dolphins, showing all sound pressure level variations within their sonar beam, they spontaneously and deliberately explored it with their echolocation. There reactions were a result of being intrigued and stimulated by the visual feedback of their sonar beams. Through this project, the researchers were able to investigate the dolphin’s ability to associate sounds with visual stimuli.

Stereotypic behaviour, a pattern of movement such as pacing and head bobbing that is performed repeatedly, relatively irrelevant in form and has no apparent function or goal are really seen performed by wild animals therefore re often considered an indication of stress. These behaviours are often a result of an accumulation of causes for example, these behaviours may arise when an animal is physically restrained from moving to a desired place. Stereotypies may also stem from other behavioural or psychological stresses such as boredom, physical restraint, fear or frustration.

Limitation of space may be one of the causes of stereotypic behaviour. Most commonly, animals are more likely to be seen performing such behaviours in smaller enclosures relative to tiger enclosures. However, it is quite difficult to determine the exact amount of space an animal needs to avoid developing stereotypic behaviours.

Low stimulus diversity is also another cause touched upon in this study. Sterile environments as a result of the rise of animal welfare in the late 20th century are more likely to house animals that often appear “bored” or lethargic due to a lack of stimulation. These unusual substrates, in this case concrete, often result in common stereotypes in felids include pacing, head-twisting, tail and toe sucking and fur plucking and causes the animals to develop sore footpads as well as leg injuries. According to Sheperdson et al. ( 1998 ) environment enrichment “is an animal husbandry principle that seeks to engage the qualities of captive animal care by identifying and providing environment stimuli necessary for optimal psychological and physiological well-being”. This includes a wide variety of techniques. In particular, food can be hidden throughout the enclosure to encourage and entice the animals to perform hunting behaviours; wood blocks or logs may also be provided to satisfy felid scratching behaviour in the absence of trees. Furthermore, stimulating scents can be spread throughout the exhibit and sterile concrete enclosures can be replaced with natural substrate and vegetation. These elements are key as the provide for the well-being of animals therefore allowing the animals to display “natural” behaviours as well as increase reproductive success. Poole ( 1998 ) explains that the captive environment should be sufficiently complex to allow for a full range of locomotor activities including walking, climbing and swimming. In the wild, a mammal chooses a living area that offers suitable facilities that caters for its needs therefore, the same should be done in the captive environment. Carlstead ( 1998 ) illustrates that the more complex and unpredictable the environment is, the less stereotypic behaviour the animals preform. By providing stimuli, the tiger’s desire to perform a negative behaviour is lessened ( Carlsbad, 1998 ).

When planning for environmental enrichment, scale, vertical spacing and horizontal spacing are crucial factors that must be considered. All aspects of the natural environment should be included in the captive enclosure and by planning by scale, it is made sure that this criteria is met ( Seidensticker and Forthman, 1998 ). Vertical and horizontal spacing including height, levels and angles are also elements to be considered in planning zoo exhibits as they are a part of the “natural” world which is often left out of exhibit design. Deroo ( 1993 ) emphasises the importance of vertical and horizontal spacing , as “ space can be used to create a safe, enriching environment that encourages and rewards natural behaviour..[A] boulder, an incline, a well-placed tree or stream can give an animal illusion of space, as well as the distance it needs from other animals.” Felids live in complex and unpredictable three-dimensional habitats which should be replicated in their unnatural counterpart. Lyons et al. ( 1997 ) found a significant between relative enclosure size and average apparent movement in captive felids. A “large’ space, in this case being >45.7m x 36.5 m, provides the animals with the opportunity to run, stalk, chase and play. Such behaviours allow the animals to fully exercise their muscles and expend energy, which they would normally spend on hunting in the wild.

The presence of vegetation also creates a more natural environment for captive animals by providing hiding areas away from the visual presence of visitors and creating areas of shade ( Law et al., 1997 ). Vegetation also attracts insects and birds into the exhibit, allowing for a more complex environment. In the same way, pool availability are also key as tigers a avid swimmers and by providing a pond for them to swim in, we are encourage an alternate form of exercise and enrichment ( Bush et al., 2002 )

The concept of “environmental enrichment” involves providing captive animals with items that stimulate exploratory behaviours ( Lyons et al., 1997 ). Such items may be fixed in the enclosure such as sticks, ledges, waterfalls, balls and ice blocks. Enrichment furnishings are thought to improve the quality of life in captive animals. For example, stereotypic pacing in captive leopard cats significantly decreased after the enclosure was made more complex.

Last but not least, the visual presence of visitors should be taken into account when planning an exhibit as the presence of visits can influence the behaviour of the animals. For example, large crowds may cause animals to become nervous or agitated and therefore may drastically change their behaviours.

Wild Tigers in Captivity: A Study of the Effects of the Captive Environment on Tiger Behavior by Leigh Elizabeth Pitsko

Keeping felids within captivity has always been a controversial topic of discussion as some believe that felids belong in the wild. However, recent studies have shown the decrease of Bengal tigers from around 100,000 in 2000 to just 3,900 in 2014. This alarming drop in wild tiger population is caused by three main factors ; the decrease in prey, tiger-human conflict and the black trades market. Due to depleting forest areas, herds of wild animals such as deer as forced to migrate into other areas of land that unfortunately may be already preoccupied by humans. Tigers are known to migrate after these herds of prey therefore leading to a high chance of human-tiger conflict. However, as tigers are an adaptable animal, many have learnt to stray far away from humans and therefore survive alongside humans. However, a number of tigers unfortunately do encounter humans.

Abnormal behaviours, such as pacing, may develop in places where the human-made environment is insufficient and restrictive of the animals carrying out there natural of instinctive behaviours. Felids have very large home ranges within the wild and carry out "hide, stalk and chase" behaviours. Captive environments however, are not able to provide such circumstances due to spatial constraints and negative human reactions to predatory behaviours.

Normal behaviours can be defined as "the exhibition of a phenotypic trait within the environmental context for which primary selective forces have shaped it, the outcome of which being maximal, inclusive fitness." However, these behaviours are often replaced by abnormal behaviours due to lack of stimuli and space.

As there were a lot of controversy surrounding whether or not zoos and sanctuaries should provide live prey for captive tigers, I have decided to ask my friends of Facebook whether or not they agree and why. These were their answers.

"It's like if u r running away from a murderer in a gated area. There is no chance of survival, just kill the damn thing first dont torture it."

"I'd feel really conflicted about it. On one hand its enrichment for the tiger and recreating what it would do naturally in the wild. On the other hand yes an animal as to die for the tiger to eat but it could be done in a humane way without stressing out the animal (which would be not providing it live for the tiger to hunt)"

"1. Yes 2. That's what's tiger suppose to do in their natural environment"

"No, there are other forms of enrichment designed to mimic hunting it's not as if the tigers are in their natural environment anyway (they don't have the same drive to hunt as they've got regular feeding) so they're more likely to play with prey than end it quickly. If you can eliminate suffering on one part (i.e. the prey in this case) then why wouldn't you?"

"First response says no. Like other answers, I do support any movement or effort to mimic endangered animals habitat's in zoos but I think to put real animals into a situation where they will inevitably die is cruel"

"I don't agree unless the zoo is big enough to have an open space which I doubt."

"Yes, normal food chain in controlled environment"

As you can see, this is not black and white question. A lot of people were torn between their personal morals and wanting to allow nature to follow its course. However some do value their morals and therefore view such act as cruelty.

Views regarding Zoos Providing Tigers with Live Prey - Survey conducted on friends and family.

Feeding Live Prey to Zoo Animals:

Response of Zoo Visitors in Switzerland by Lauren Cottle

Apart from asking my friends on Facebook about whether or not providing live prey to felids to captivity is ethically correct, I also wanted to branch out and find answers for the same questions but from Zoo visitors of a different background. I wanted to do this because I feel like different cultural backgrounds may induct different morals and therefore by questioning an additional group of people with either a different religion, age or gender will be able to inform me on how different Zoo visitors view feeding live prey to Zoo Animals. Modern zoos as of recent, have been increasingly more concerned about being able to provide adequate conditions in order to reproduce and form stable populations, with the ultimate goal of reintroducing these animals back into the wild. In order to make these reintroductions successful, the animal’s social structure, survival skills. foraging and hunting skills must be maintained. Many deaths of reintroduced animals are due to behavioural deficiencies as generations in captivity make animals lose crucial learned attributes. Specifically carnivores as the constant supply of ready-made fodder can cause the loss of their hunting skills, resulting consequently in carnivores that are reintroduced into the wild four-times more likely to die of starvation than if they were introduced from other locations.

This specific study was done in 2007, with the help of a written questionnaire on 409 ( 207 men and 202 women ) visitors during their visit to the zoological garden of Zurich, Switzerland. All study participants were chosen at random , however, still maintaining the balance for sex and age by asking an equal proportion of men and women as well as people from varying age groups to participate ( 12 to 85 ). They were introduced to the idea of feeding live insects to lizards, live fish to otter, and live rabbits to tigers. A comparable study has been made earlier in 1995 at Edinburgh Zoo where it was found that both on and off exhibit feeding of live insects to lizards and live fish to penguins was accepted by at least 70% of the participants and only 32% accepted the feeding of live rabbits to cheetahs. Moreover, off-exhibit feeding was more appreciated than on-exhibit feeding. In addition to answering the questions included within the questionnaire, participants were also asked to state their age and gender as well as their highest level of education ( primary school, secondary school, apprenticeship, high school or equivalent, college) and from these categories, a data variable was derived indicating whether a person had a lower ( primary school up to apprenticeship ) or a higher ( high school and university ) education. Furthermore, they were also asked whether or not they owned a pet and, if so, which kind of pet. If any additional comments were made by study participants, they were also recorded.

With the exception of feeding rabbits to tigers on-exhibit, most participants agreed with the feeding of live grey to zoo animals, both on and off exhibit. The results in the cases of feeding live insects to lizards and live fish to otters did not differ significantly in their agreement to on and off exhibit demonstrations, whereas in the case of feeding live rabbits to tigers, the participants more often agreed to off-exhibit feeding. In the models only gender, level of education and frequency of visits to the zoo influenced the agreement of the participants to the idea of feeding live prey. Age, pet ownership and other zoo visits on the other hand, had no influence on their views. From the data, men agreed more with the on-exhibit feeing of live insects to lizards and live rabbits to tigers and study participants with a higher education more often agreed with the feeding of live prey off-exhibit. Frequent visitors to the zoological garden agreed less often than others with the on-exhibit feeing of live rabbits to tigers and agreed more often to the off-exhibit feeding of live fish to otters. Pet ownership in general did not do much in terms of influencing visitor’s opinion however, more of the study participants who owned a rabbit disagreed with the on-exhibit feeding of rabbits to tigers (72%) whereas only 50% of other participants that owned a different pet ( cat, dog ) disagreed.

Some participants, in order to justify their opinion made comments such as “it is natural” and “in nature, it is normal”. A “hierarchy of concern” , a function of the distance of relationship between the prey animal and primates, can also influence participants’ opinions as the results found also consisted with this idea. The closer the prey animal was related to primates, the fewer participants agreed that said animal should be fed alive to zoo animals or, if so, should be done off-exhibit. Humans like visually attractive animals with considerable intelligence and the capacity for social bonding and tend to avoid invertebrates due to their small size and behaviour that is unlike humans. Therefore, it is not surprising that the results of the questionnaire revealed that the participants were least concerned about the feeding of live insects and is most concerned about the feeding of live rabbits, especially on-exhibit. Furthermore, women objected more often than men which may partly be due to a greater emotional affection of women for attractive, primarily domestic pet animals.

In comparison to a study done in 1995 at Edinburgh Zoo, zoo visitors in Switzerland were more often in favour of the live feeding of vertebrates. However, rather than the difference between the results be due to culture-related differences, the difference of results may be due to an attitude shift caused by an increase knowledge about conservation issues and more exposure to predation events on nature documentaries that may have increased their habituation to seeing feeding of live prey on-exhibit. It is therefore possible that visitors may perceive on-exhibit feeding as an attraction and an opportunity to see the animals.

Influence of social upbringing on the activity pattern of captive lion cubs: Benefits of behavioural enrichment by Sibonokuhle Ncube

Effects of Pool Size on Free-Choice Selections by Atlantic Bottlenosed Dolphins at One Zoo Facility by Melissa R. Shyan

Due to dolphin pool designs that often stem from the concept that cetaceans are ocean based and ipso factor should live in open, deep, watery environments, there appears to be a trend in regulations concerning pool sizes for captive cetaceans, driving by the theory that “bigger is better”. This emotionally appealing rationale that came from the idea that cetaceans are marine animals, ocean-based species who ipso facts live in wide, open, deep watery spaces although emotionally appealing, is not data driven. In fact, habitat in the ocean differ as much as those on land. This study concerns the indue of captive environment sizes for Atlantic bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ), specially pool dimensions. Unfortunately, only a few scientific publications mentioned the characteristics of the environment in which Tursiops are found. In their studies of the residential pods found in the Sarasota Bay area, Irvine and Wells (1972); Irvine, Scott, Wells, Kaufmann (1981); and Wells, Irvine and Scott (1980) found this population in six different physiographic subdivisions of habitat. These include narrow and shallow waterways 2-3 metres deep, flats and shallows less than 2 metres deep, wide bays 2-5 metres deep, passages between areas that were 2-11 metres deep as well as off-shore areas less than 2 metres deep. Most sightings revealed animals in areas less than 3 metres deep. This indicates that the dolphins resided in the shallower areas ( approximately 2 metres deeps ) and moved to deeper areas predominantly for feeding and when resources are less available in shallower areas. Therefore, for Trursiops, it is possible that bigger is not necessarily better. Indeed, these reports indicate that in the wild, these bottlenose dolphins may frequent shallower, more than deeper waters. Few studies have been done on this species’ preferences for pool sizes in captive environments. Anecdotal reports from keepers, trainers and other marine mammal professionals suggest that when given a choice, bottlenose dolphins tend to stay in shallower pool environments. This study aims to test the hypothesis that the dolphins would tend to stay in pools and areas more similar to their natural habitat ( i.e. the shallower pool areas). It is necessary to recognise the limitations of this study. Across pools, it is not possible to control underwater noise differences, ambient light, volume of water and any conditioned associations that the dolphins may have developed over the years. For example, the Medical Pool is associated with the separation from conspecifics and uncomfortable medical procedures and thus, although the shallowest pool, may be of less preferred environment for the animals.

At the time of study (1996), two male and five female Atlantic Bottlenose dolphins at the Indianapolis Zoo were approximately 12 years of age. They all originated from the Gulf of Mexico, taken from the resident population at Pine Island Sound, Florida, a region similar in topography to Sarasota Bay where Wells and Hoffman (1997) did their wild population studies. The dolphins are a well established pod acclimated to the facility and to each other as a result of being introduced since 1988 and maintained at the zoo since 1989. The facility is an indoor facility housed in the Whale/Dolphin Pavilion. It is lighted by both artificial and natural lighting through large windows high up on the south wall. During early evenings, the facility has supplementary lighting supplied by large floodlights aimed at the ceiling of the pavilion. These floodlights are mounted 12.2 metres above the pools. The facility consists of four pools ranging in depths in strict increments of 3.96 m, 5.49 m and 8.23 m with five peripheral shallows ranging in graded increments from 0.25 m to approximately 0.5 m in depth as well as two semicircular pulpits approximately 1.0 m deep. Unlike the wild, these pools do not have graded slopes leading from one depth to another, therefore, gradations of preferences cannot be measured. In three of the four pools ( Main, East holding and West holding), dolphins receive equal amounts of training time and feeding. The fourth pool (Medical), is used for medical procedures and for quarantine of new or sick animals. Some training and feeding is also done in this area.

The Main Pool is a very large pool open to the public viewing and stands on the south side of the facility. The top of its south wall is 1.80 m high clear acrylic for public viewing. Two thirds of the way towards the bottom are five large 2.0 m X 1.8 m viewing windows for lower level public viewing. In addition, there are two 0.6 m x 0.8 m underwater viewing ports on the maintenance side of this pool. The Main pool contains one wide shallower area, a beaching platform on the public viewing side of the pool and a dry feeding platform on the opposing side. Feeding and training sessions occur primarily in the areas however, other areas are used as well. The Main Pool also contains two shallow “pulpit” areas on the east and west ends of the pool and two narrow shallow shelves near the gates leading to the East and West pools, respectively. The East and West polls are all alike in all dimensions. They are both visible to the public but contain no viewing glass. Each pool however, has two viewing ports of like dimensions on the maintenance side. Each one has a narrow shallow shelf running almost completely around the other edges of the pool. The East Pool is closest to the staff and fish preparation centre. The two pools connect to the Main Pool via two independent sets of gates and connect to each other through the Medical Holding Pool. The Medical Holding Pool is the smallest of all four pools. It is located between the East and West Pools, connected through two independent sets of gates. It, like the rest, contains a shallow shelf area.

Out of all 84 instantaneous samples collect over a 18 day period. The data is analysed by different theoretical models based on pool or area dimensions : depth, surface area, volume (gallons) and simple location using chi-square goodness-of-fit test. Statistically, depth is the more conservative measure, but all other comparisons were made alongside. Depth, surface area, and volume are correlated for these pools. The dolphins showed unequal use of the three depths when compared to equal preference usage. This indicates that the deep, moderate, and shallow depth preferences differed from one another significantly. The dolphins were found most often (67.8% of the time) in the moderate depth areas of 5.49 m and least often(2.9% of the time) in the deep areas of 8.23 m, with the presence in the shallow areas falling in between these two at 29.7%. Another element that was considered were volume, that the dolphins were choosing pools based on the overall amount of water in each area. The assumption was made that dolphins would be equally distributed across the total volume so that larger areas i.e the Main Pool, through having more volume consequently, will be used more. The results found however, did not support this model. The dolphins were not using the different pools as would be predicted by proportional volume. Instead, the dolphins tended to use moderately sized pools most, then smaller areas, and the largest pool least. Similar circulations were made for surface area. Again, the assumption was made that dolphins will be equally distributed across the total surface area so that larger areas would be expected to have more use. Expected frequencies were calculated by dividing total surface area into individual surface areas and then multiplying by the total number of observations. This model was also not supported. Instead, the dolphins tend to use moderately sized pools most, then smaller areas, and the largest pool least. The final assumption made was that dolphins has specific area of pool preferences that were not related to any dimensional function. That is, the dolphins were biased towards specific areas due to factors such as history, ambient light, noise difference, or territorial and social factors. This model, yet again, was not supported. The dolphins did not choose areas of pools equally often but instead again chose moderate or shallow areas more often than large. There however, is some bias towards the West Pool areas, but the East Pool and the Medical Pool was used much more than the Main Pool.

All in all, even though it is evident that dolphins most often chosen areas that were moderately sized pools, then smaller pools and the deeper pools least, the dolphins were not acting in accordance with these predicted null hypotheses. The dolphins did not choose pools in proportion to any of these dimensions i.e larger pool dimensions paralleling greater use, nor did the dolphins behave in a way that indicated no preferences between depths and locations. Instead, the dolphins had preferences. These preferences were not correlated with increasing sizes or proportions but on the dimension of overall depth. It is impossible to state why the dolphins in this study preferred the West Pool over others, years of associational learning with the various areas and other factors, along with the influence produced by pool dimensions, may have combined to influence choice. What this study was able to conclude however, was that the dolphins absolutely seen little time in the Main Pool. These preliminary data support the suggestion that for this species, the Tursiops truncatus, bigger is not necessarily better.

Metal Gates ( Fig. 1 - 2 )
- Keeps other animals out of Tiger Territory.
Double-Layer automatic fence ( Fig. 3 - 6 )
- Allows keepers and staff to monitor the amount of cars entering the territory.
- Slows cars down.
- The distance between the two gates allow time for all customers to close their windows.
Holding facility ( Fig. 7 - 8 )
- The built high enough so that the animals are able to stand on their hind legs at full height, allowing them to stretch and prevent developing any joint problems.
- The built in concrete allows for a container for water, allowing the tigers clean water access as well as provide as enrichments simulation natural behaviour.

Apart from all of the furnishings , the placement of them is also key to ensuring maximum ease for both animals and keepers. For example, the distance of the individual structures from one another must be sufficient enough for the keepers’ cars to fit through to allow the keepers to monitor and/or distribute enrichment without getting in the way of customers whilst on duty.

To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key.

Furnishings within the Enclosure.

Soft Furnishings ( Soft-Technology )

Logs + Trees ( See Fig 1 - 3 )
- Allow tigers to climb, claw and mark their territory.
- Tigers claw at trees as a way of sharpening their claws as the friction of the claw against the tree aids the outer layer of the claw to come loose, leaving behind a sharp new claw.
- They also use trees to mark their territory as secretion from the glands in their paws leave deposits, easily picked up by other big cats.
- To serve a place where caretakers can hang food and enrichment encouraging their natural behaviour.
- Provides shade where tigers can seek refuge away from the sun.
Rocks ( See Fig 4 - 5 )
- Provides cool surfaces for the tigers to lay on.
Pond ( See Fig 6 - 8 )
- Serves as a place where the animals can go to cool down.
- Encourages natural behaviour such as swimming and hunting.
- In Zone 1, the post provides as a place where the animals can relax away from the visual presence of customer vehicles
Wooden Fence
- Acts as a barrier separating different groups of Tigers than do not get along.
Plants ( See Fig 9 - 10 )
- Tamarind leaves act as natural toys.
- Bamboo leaves help the animas regurgitate as well as clean the stomach and the rest of the digestive system.
Wooden Platform ( Fig. 11 - 12 )
- Serves as a viewing platform for the safari’s buses as well as ease for the animals to access the hood of the feeding care during Feeding Show.
- Provides shade and a place to put enrichment.
Water Bowl
- Provides accessible fresh water.

To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key.

Hard Furnishings ( Hard-Technology )

Figure 6

Field Notes ( Summer 2016 )

Breeds of Tigers at the Facility:
- Bengal Tiger
- Siberian Tiger
Chuffing is how a tiger displays a non aggressive greeting to either another tiger or a caretaker. They will also rub their bodies against the cage asking for the caretaker to interact or play with it similar to that of a cats'. Often seen as a sign of affection.
Tigers emit a sound similar to a bird in their throat to call their young , it can not be too loud or else it will attract predators. When with their Cubs are still young , mother tigers will offer go hide their young before a hunt in either a dense part of the forest or under piles of wood in order to protect their young from other predators when they are not around. Sometimes mother tigers will bring back small prey that are not yet dead in order for their Cubs to practice. Cubs will also play fight as a way to practice pouncing and fighting to prepare them for when they grow up.
Tigers will hunt and stay within a 10km radius however the area in which they hunt may constantly change depending on where their main source of food is. For example , if a herd of deer migrates north, tigers might follow.
Tigers are solitary creatures and offer prefer to live alone. However, they can hunt in teams and live in packs if the cubs refuse to leave their mother.
Unlike lions , after mating , tigers will not stay together
Tigers go into heat every 50 days and will stay in heat for around 5 days
Their pregnancy will last around 120 days. Tigers will give birth to 3-4 cubs at a time but more often than not , one cub will not make it and therefore most common litter size is 2 cubs.
Tigers and very protective of their front legs as it is vital in order for them to leap and run after prey therefore they will not really let people touch their front paws.
Front paws : 5 fingers
Hind paws : 4 fingers
Can leap 6 meters and can jump upward of 4 meters
When looking at tiger tracks, you can tell which direction in which they are going by determining with track is the front and with tract is the back paw. When a tiger jumps , they will use their back legs and therefore the claws will appear
Tigers dislike the smell of alcohol as it interferes with the hormone levels within their body and are scared of the smell of smoke as they are forest animals and the smell of smoke often indicates a forest fire.
When stressed, tigers will walk back and forth we with their head hung low , tail kept still
When relaxed , they will walk leisurely with their head slightly higher and their tail will curl and uncurl as a sign of contentment
When a tiger allows itself to fall asleep with the carer around , this shows that it trusts the carer enough to let its guard down around and the carer being around doesn't pose any threat
Tigers are ambush predators so even though the caretaker may be familiar with the tiger , they should avoid turning their backs towards it . Therefore when entering and exiting in and out of the tigers cage , they must face the direction of the tiger at all times .
The ideal body shape of a tiger is that their backs must be straight with the width of the backside being similar to the width of their shoulders
Their stripes are considered most pretty when the stripes are thick with a band of brown in the middle
White tigers are born when both the mother and father are carriers of the recessive white gene and therefore they are overall lighter in colour meaning their stripes will be brown instead of black. Their eyes blue or white. Furthermore , due to a light colour gene, their stripes often appear finer and broken up than the stripes of a regular colour bengal
Bengal and Siberia tigers vary in colour from dark rust to sand . Some tigers will have white undersides and white on the face whereas others will be overall rust coloured with maybe a lighter colour for the underside. However all tigers will have a white dot behind their ears regardless of the colour of their body.
Tigers often keep their eyes wide open and therefore we cannot guess the temperament of the tiger from looking at its eyes .
When a new tiger is born within the park , the park will have to contact the government within 7 days to let them know of the new amount of tigers to allow the government to update the amount of tigers within Thailand .
When a tiger passes , the officials are told and the corpse will be taken to the vet to perform an autopsy in order to find out the cause of death and then if the park wants to keep its skin to do taxidermy for example, the park will also have to contact the officials to say that they have this that amount of animal remains.
When a tiger falls ill , it's waste will change colour or may contain blood ; and it will not eat as much (5-9kgs of food are eaten by each tiger everyday) chicken , beef , pork and sometimes dead park animals will be given to the tigers with vitamins stuffed inside (but not every meal). Bananas , lettuce and local fruits are also given to the tigers
Tigers are fed once a day in the afternoon after park hours to encourage them to walk back to their cages behind the enclosure
They are given food 6 days a week
Within the enclosure , logs are provided for the tigers to sharpen their claws with.
Plants like bamboo are also provided for them to eat and flush out any toxins within their body ( in the wild , they eat chicken feather and all but in then park , it is given chicken that has already been prepared so therefore vitamins are vital).
A pool is also provided within the enclosure to allow them to drink from and for them to cool off in if the day is too hot
Pool water is filtered and the temperature is monitored and maintained at around (20-25C)
In countries with seasons , Siberia tigers will grow out their finer, inner hair in order to keep warm and therefore appear fluffier and in the summer , they shed their finer hairs leaving their outer more coarse hairs
You can tell apart a Bengal from a Siberia as Siberia tigers are of a bigger build and will have fluffier look overall. Siberia will tigers also have a rounder face and eyes than further apart are slanted at a lower angle.
Males tigers are up to 40% bigger than female tigers with a bigger skull. When viewed from the side, the skull of the male tiger will not curve between its forehead and its nose however , the skull of the female tiger will dip slightly between the eyes and the tip of the nose similar to the skull of a dog.
A tiger's long whiskers are used at night to abound walking into things
Their tails are used to maintain balance and steer when running
When spooked , a tiger will jump around its cages almost running on the walls
However when their eyes are wide open with their ears tilted backwards or if they cock their head from side to side, it means they are curious
Female tigers when with the care taker will not only look out for the safety of its own but also the safety of the care taker
Tigers almost behave because of a reason. When the look at a direction for a log period of time , it means that they detected something that is unfamiliar and is weary. Sometimes when a miscalculation happens and a tiger gives birth and there is a tiger in the cage connected to it, the mother tiger will refuse to put down their young and will carry the young, walking in circles trying to find a hiding spot in order to keep their young safe
If their young walks too close to a care taker , the mother tiger will use its front paws to push the cub so that the cub is behind or between the mum's front legs
Mother tigers will also push hay around to absorb any moister on the ground than the cubs may have caused from playing in the water bowl
Cubs will emit a high pitched voice ( similar sounding to a bird) to have their mum's attention
Cubs in the wild with stay with they mothers until they are 6 months old and is able to hunt for itself
However in captivity, if the cubs are both female, it will be kept with their mum to form a pack .
In the wild , it is possible for the female to mate with more than one male and carry cubs of different fathers however in captivity , when a female is in heat , a male is chosen and let out with her and even if she encounters another male , she most likely will reject him.

Safari World Tiger Department.

The Tiger Department is a department that looks after all big cats that reside in the open safari area of the park. The tiger department consists of keepers that look after the tigers to rangers that make sure all tigers are where they are supposed to be, and away from other safari residents. The tigers are separated into two adjoining exhibits with the lions taking up the first. There are roughly around 10 big cats in each exhibit and altogether, the exhibit as well as the various holding facilities takes up around 30 acres of land. I thought that by studying the physical and behavioural needs of the animals and the keepers as well as how the enclosure is designed to cater those needs, I would be able to pick out the determining factors that contribute or impact the design of the enclosure.

As felids ( big cats ) are quite difficult to cater for due to their behaviour and potentially dangerous nature, it will be interesting to delve into the ways in which the enclosure simulates nature hence providing the animals with a complex enclosure that stimulates them psychologically as well as physically without visible barriers but at the same time ensuring the safety of the staff.

Brief Background on Bengal Tigers.

Tiger claws are used as lethal weapons during hunting. The hook shape of the claws enables the tiger to grasp the skin of prey and so prevent the prey from escaping.
In addition to licking, tigers repeatedly scratch. The claws dislodges dead hair, deals with skin irritations and removes tangled fur.
Once a tree is chosen, a tiger will use its claws to repeatedly scratch marks , leaving deep longitudinal marks on the trunk. Not all tigers scratch at trees, some do it frequently while others don't bother. Secretions from glands in the feet leave deposits which are easily smelled by other tigers. For experts, the height of claw marks on trees is an indicator of the tiger's size.
Although it is uncommon for tigers to climb trees, they are still quite capable of doing so; they may do this if being chased by other animals or when after prey. There have been occasions of men climbing trees to escape an attacking tiger, only to be killed when the tiger followed them up. Though claws make the climb possible, their angle also makes the descent an awkward job.
Claws are also used for defense; primarily in encounters with other tigers, but also with other animals and when a cat feels threatened by man.
Claws are also used to maintain balance whilst stretching, walking, running and jumping, amongst other actions on rough terrain.
Glands between the toes produce secretions which are left when tigers scratch. These send chemical signals to other cats in the area.
Claws are usually described as retractable, however this is a misnomer. In their normal relaxed position claws are sheathed. This prevents wear from contact with the ground, therefore keeping them sharp.
It is only during a stretch, such as that involved in catching prey, that the connecting tendons are pulled taut so automatically forcing the claws outwards. In other words, the action of extending the claws is not a conscious action.
The teeth and the structure of the jaw of the tiger both play a very important role in its hunting, diet and general way of life. These are built for grabbing moving prey (sometimes bigger than the hunting tiger itself), snapping necks, crunching through bone and sinew and grinding meat into mouthfuls soft enough to swallow.
The jaws cannot move from side to side, only up and down, which adds to the strength of the downwards clamping. Tigers have 30 teeth, which is considerably less than many other mammals. However, these teeth are specialised; designed specifically for hunting, clamping and tearing at the prey of the animal.
As in humans, the molars and premolars are designed for grinding and chewing. So, once the tiger has captured its prey and torn through the meat, it is able to process the big chunks between these teeth before swallowing it. This aids in digestion as the food is broken down significantly before reaching the stomach. There is a significant absence of teeth between the molars and the canines, which allows for the animal to hold on tight to its prey, even if it is writhing to get away.
The canine teeth of the tiger are larger than those of any of the other wild cats, reaching lengths of almost 10 centimetres. These teeth are very sensitive, filled with neural receptors and enabling the tiger to kill its prey quickly and effectively. This reduces the suffering of the prey as well as the amount of energy that the tiger needs to exert in each kill. The back teeth (carnassials) are then used to slice the meat off of the carcass of the catch.
Size :
- 2.40 metres to 3.30 metres
Weight :
- 140 Kg to 300 Kg
Top Speed :
- 60 mph
Diet :
- Carnivore
- Natural Prey : Deer, Cattle, Wild Boar
Behaviour :
- Wild Tigers prefer to live in Solitary
Life Span:
- 18-25 years and takes 2 - 4 years for the tigers to reach sexual maturity
Like humans and many other animals, tigers have an endoskeleton, meaning that it is inside the body (as opposed to an external shell). Its skeleton comprises hard, strong bones held together by ligaments, rather than cartilaginous structures (as is the case with sharks, for example). The internal organs are then protected within this sturdy structure.
The structure of the skeleton of a tiger is similar to that of other big cats in the wild, particularly the lion.
The longer hind legs of the tiger enable it to jump powerfully, covering up to 10 metres in a single leap. Their forelegs have a solid bone running through them, which reinforces them and makes them able to support a massive amount of muscle tissue. This means that they are as strong as possible, which is important as the tiger uses these forelimbs to grab and hold onto its prey, even when the hunter is running at high speeds.
The collarbone of the tiger is particularly small in comparison to the rest of the skeleton and in comparison to other endoskeletal mammals. This enables it to achieve longer strides without hindrance.
Another skeletal feature that gives the tiger extra strength and flexibility is its spine, which has 30 vertebrae (as opposed to our 25) and extends to the very tip of the long tail.
Hearing
- Tigers have acute hearing
- Can hear from infrasonic to ultrasonic frequency range
- Greatest sensitivity in the 300-500 Hz range
- 300 Hz is the frequency most represented in close-encounter roars
- Can hear infrasonic (below 20 Hz) frequencies not detectable by the human ear
- A tiger's highly developed hearing is essential for hunting success and communication
- High-frequency sounds - typical of prey rustling in undergrowth
- Low-frequency sounds - well-suited for long-distance communication through dense jungles
Vision
- All cats, including tigers, have adaptations that increase sensitivity for nighttime hunting
- Large pupils and lenses maximize and focus incoming light
- High concentrations of rods, the most sensitive type of light-receptor cells
- Reflective layer at the back of the retina amplifies light signals
- Binocular vision creates a 3-dimensional image
- Unlike most cats, Panthera have round pupils - better adapted to function in daytime
Smell
- Sense of smell not as highly developed in cats as in dogs - fewer olfactory (smell-sensing) cells, smaller olfactory bulb in brain
- Tigers do not rely heavily on smell to locate prey, but they do rely on it for communication
- As in other cats, tigers have vomeronasal organ (a.k.a. Jacobson's organ) on upper palate that is lined with scent-detecting cells

Brief Background on Siberian Tigers.

Size :

2.40 metres to 3.70 metres

Weight :

100 Kg to 350 Kg

Top Speed :

60 mph

Diet :

Carnivore
Natural Prey : Deer, Cattle, Wild Boar

Behaviour :

Wild Tigers like to live in Solitary

Life Span:

18-25 years and takes 2 - 4 years for the tigers to reach sexual maturity

Bengal and Siberian Tigers

Zoo Enclosure Design.

Source

Left :

Illustration of Roof Structure

Bottom left :

Elephant seen swimming via observing room underground

Botton right:

Roof structure from inside

Do Naturalistic Enclosure Provide Suitable Environments for Zoo Animals?

Promoting animal welfare is one of the main goals modern zoological parks must assume as a priority. However, providing adequate animal welfare is easier said than done as the welfare of captive animals stems beyond nutrition and centenary care; it involves, amongst other aspects, housing the animals in suitable environments that will enable them to fulfil their main biological needs. For this reason, when designing an animal enclosure, the species’ natural original environments must be considered, as well as its ecology and behaviour, in order to assure that the animal is able to find necessary resources to meet its biological needs and therefore, encourage welfare. During recent years, zoological parks have chosen more naturalistic designs for their on-exhibit enclosures. By doing so, zoological parks intend to raise awareness among the public of the importance of biodiversity preservation by stimulating the habitat of the species housed. This revolution in enclosure design has induced a more positive attitude towards species in captivity among the general public, who not only prefer naturalistic enclosures over non-naturalistic ones, but also consider the former to ensure the welfare of the animals housed.

The benefits of a naturalist enclosure goes beyond public perceptions and opinions and have been considered to relate to wild-type activity budgets, and low frequencies of psychopathologies as well as the facilitation in the normal animal behaviour patterns. In the studies conducted, the positive effect of naturalistic enclosures on animal welfare probably relies on the fact that these designs create a captive environment that effectively offers the animals the necessary resources in order to cater to their biological needs and hence, improve welfare. Furthermore, some authors have showed concern, stating that enclosures designed purely in the interest of aesthetic naturalism may offer as little to the animals in terms of behavioural opportunities as the sterile exhibits of the zoos prior to animal welfare being introduced. Therefore, it is worth noting that the aesthetics of an enclosure is not a suitable tool for assessing how well it meets the needs of its inhabitants. Accurate evaluations of the suitability of animal enclosures are particularly important during official zoo inspections and licensing processes where inspectors can be lured by appearance, failing to identify those aspects that should be assessed to ensure that the enclosure is actually functional and suitable for the animals. Therefore, this study aims to explore whether such enclosures provide some of the environmental resources to allow housed species to satisfy their main biological needs and hence, improve their welfare.

The sample consisted of 63 existing zoology parks in Spain officially registered in 2003 who have voluntarily agreed to participate in this study. The participating zoos were required to provide a complete list of all the species they housed. The domesticated species were then excluded from each zoological park’s list and out of the remaining species, 30 were randomly chosen. In some cases where less than 30 species remained, all the enclosures housing wild species were selected. The final study sample composed of 1,381 animal enclosures. Data were collected by three evaluators from October 2003 to May 2004. The evaluators have been trained prior to participating in this study by the research director of the evaluation guide. Visits were then arranged and performed together with the person in charge of each zoo, who will be able to provide information requested by the evaluators. Each zoo and their enclosures were visited by a single evaluator and it the scenario where a species was held in more than one enclosure in the zoo, the enclosure with the most specimens was evaluated. The enclosures was classified into two categories according to their naturalistic design - “naturalistic” and “non-naturalistic”. In order for an enclosure to be labelled “naturalistic”, the enclosure has to simulate identifiable parts of the landscape of the species habitat through the use of natural elements in its design, including the simulation of physical and botanical surroundings similar to those found in the landscape of the species’ natural distribution. In the case of enclosures housing more than one species, the species all had to be deemed compatible from a zoogeographic point of view. Enclosures not meeting all above criteria were labelled as “non-naturalistic”. Additionally, the enclosure’s suitability was assessed in seven aspects related to the provisions of certain environmental resources, required by an animal to be able to satisfy some of its main biological needs. An enclosure was considered to provide a suitable environment for its animals only when all seven aspects were met and although other aspects could have been considered and then assessed, the chose aspects are not only complementary to each other, but also because all of them could be reliably measured by a trained evaluator, and assessed by observation within a single visit, a critical point considering the large sample size.

43.9 % of the 1,381 enclosures evaluated provided a suitable environment for their occupants. Amongst those that did not, failure generally was a result from the enclosure being unable to meet only one aspect, concerning the space and structural elements available to perform locomotion activities. Unfulfilled aspects differed in number and nature depending on the taxonomic group of the species under consideration. Unfortunately, birds had the highest percentage of non-suitable enclosures. Pearson’s Chi-square test revealed a relationship between the appearance of an enclosure in terms of its naturalistic design and the suitability of the environment provided for the animals. As expected, 77.8% of naturalistic enclosures provided suitable environments for their inhabitants. The remaining 22.2% failed due to being unable to meet on single aspect. Similarly, there were significantly more non-naturalistic enclosures that failed to provide a suitable environment than those that are able to, with only 39.7% of the enclosures providing suitable environments for their animals. This data supports the belief that naturalistic enclosures provided better environments for the animals. With newly 80% of naturalistic enclosures proven to be suitable and the ones that did not, were unable to meet only one out of the seven aspects. However, even though this studies presents the first time empirical data that confirms the adequateness of naturalistic designs in providing environmental resources that enable the animals’ biological needs, a suitable environment does not guarantee animal welfare. However, the absence of the former can certainly impact animal welfare negatively. With this in mind, zoological parks must guarantee that their animal collections are housed under appropriate conditions and assure that evidence-based assessments are in place to oversee the welfare of animals in their zoological collections. Aspects such as how the animals utilise the enclosure of social compatibility amongst group members are a few out of many that should be assessed. Out of all naturalistic environments assessed, the fact that 22.2 % failed to meet the criteria was surprising, given the complex planning process behind the design of a naturalistic exhibit and the high costs due to their construction and maintenance. It seems reasonable to expect that the biological needs of the animals to be housed were taken into account in the designing process of the enclosure. However, as Melfil and et al. has pointed out, the aesthetics of an enclosure was not a suitable tool for assessing how well the enclosure met the needs of its occupants and in some cases, may even be misleading. In this regard, it is advisable that people in charge of inspections do not exclusively rely on aesthetic naturalism when evaluating animal enclosure.

1/5

What makes a good enclosure ?

As well as judging the quality of modern Zoo design based on the 4 criteria mentioned prior, I was still certain that there was more components that make up a good design as animals are such complex creatures with varying behaviours differentiating with each species. Therefore, I have decided to delve even further into Zoo design and the views architects hold on their designs.

What I’ve noticed most is that one principle that all architects agree on is that a good design must stem from the animals themselves , as this design is directly affects them, without proper exhibits, holding facilities and appropriate back of house support, the design is not only inadequate but useless. Much like how architect often talk to the client before designing an the client’s house, the zoo designer must take into account what message(s) the zoo wish to coney to its visitors as well as what maintenance requirements are needed to be taken into account. Firstly, the zoo designer must be notified of the animal’s physical and behavioural needs in order to adequately provide stimulants for the animals, education, interpretive objectives as well as visitor viewing concepts are all to be considered when designing. There should be minimal need for large and obtrusive buildings and instead, the design should encourage and allow space for natural vegetation. In particular, “Soft Technology” i.e natural materials specifically plants, logs, rocks objects of simple fabrication as well as “High-Tech” objects which are designed to appear natural ( artificial rock work, trees or mechanisms creating artificial microclimates) should be considered more as opposed to “Hard Technology” i.e concrete, steel, masonry, glass and acrylic.

Plants are also a crucial component to consider in order to create a realistic presentation. Therefore Zoo Horticulturists are key and should be encourages to work with animal experts, educators and landscape architects in the design and maintenance phases of the exhibit to ensure that the plants will be able to double as stimulants for the animals and that none of the plants placed in the exhibit is toxic to the animals. Landscape Immersion meaning exhibits in which visitors and animals share the same landscape, a concept developed by JONES AND JONES, Architect and Landscape Architects should also be considered during this phase. For example, if the zoo is aiming for an African setting in a particular exhibit, the landscape should be carefully designed to feel like the African Savannah with invisible barriers that separates people from the animals.

At the same time, the follow-up component is arguably the weakest part of zoo development due to initial construction and maintenance carried out by different parties, non of which understand or take into account each other’s needs and intentions therefore in order to avoid such complication there should be someone with decision making capacity be actively involved throughout all phases. An Exhibit Maintenance Manual including original photos, drawing and slides should also be assembled by the original designers in order to show their long-term intentions to maintenance personnels years in the future as well as the desired image of the project.

Last but not least, the designer also has to take into account the needs of the visitors as the visitors are what brings the zoo its funds. After a survey, most visitors like looking closely at animals but prefer spacious exhibits. However, if the animal is stressed at the visual presence of visitors, exhibits should be designed to screen, block and provide places where the animals can relax well away for the views of any onlookers. For example a study at Atlanta Zoo, Georgia done in 1988 showed that the decrease of the visibility of gorillas in their new naturalistic exhibit resulted in a decrease of satisfaction for the visitors. Similarly, at Brookfield Zoo, Chicago in 1991 there were an increase of visitor satisfaction when there was a new addition to the dolphin tank that provided an underwater viewing experience and interactive as well as interpretive components. Therefore, a large exhibit with multiple viewing spots and platforms would be most suitable.

However, despite all available information on what makes up a good zoo design, more and more zoos are trying to incorporate a new zoo exhibit. One of which is a trail make of steel and mesh, raised above ground allowing all guests to observe the animals. This exhibit was built as a way to get animals moving throughout the zoos, providing for their behavioural requirements. However, not all is as simple as it seems, as animals such as Tigers are inclined to patrol their boundaries in the wild however when limited in a box like exhibit, it looks as though the animal is pacing, which is a stereotypic behaviour ( being a stereotypic behaviour meaning as a repetitive, invariant behaviour pattern with no obvious goal or function). This behaviour is not seen in animals in the wild and is understood to be abnormal and is therefore a negative factor in conservation captivity and with the purpose in mind, the team came up with a solution. However unlike Jacksonville Zoo where the tiger trail is approximately 300m long with less than 10% actually on the ground in order to allow the visitors and the residents of the zoo to cross path with no difficulty and to provide the animals maximum comfort with a structure built to replicate fallen strangler fig to give the tigers a sense that they were still somewhat hidden from the public. As well as the majority of the trail being on ground , behind the scenes as much as possible, the animals are able to patrol and scent mark as they would in the wild. Philadelphia’s Zoo trail is mostly suspended in air, which for some of the animals such as tigers who never or very seldom leave the forest floor and travel through the trees in the wild, this could provide to be quite stressful for them.

Source 2

Source 1

Philadelphia Zoo Animal Trail

Jackson Ville “Land of the Tiger” exhibit

"Animals come first, from the size of their exhibit to the amount of enrichment they are given, we are the voice of the animals. It is up to the designer to push, no, to demand that the most appropriate exhibit be designed on each and every project, no matter it’s scale or cost."

Zoo Guidelines for keeping large Felids in Captivity

Bringing Nature into the Zoo: Inexpensive Solutions for Zoo Environments by David Hancocks

For too long zoo administrators and designers have looked to other zoos for solutions. Mistakes from the past have therefore been perpetuated. Instead, one should look to nature: the captive environments should duplicate as many as possible of the essential characteristics in the animal’s natural physical and social environment. The natural environment contain great complexity. In nature, furnishings such as soils, rocks, vegetation and water create spatial variations. Temporal variation occurs through such factors as light, temperature, humidity, food availability and seasonal changes in vegetation. Therefore, wild animals have evolved complex behavioural repertoires which are flexible and extensive enough to cope with the diversity of their natural environments. It is therefore not surprising that sterile environments within captivity produce boredom therefore the animals often find themselves prone to stereotypic behaviour.

There are two essential and basic methods of increasing environmental complexity in the zoo: spatially, through the addition of furnishings, and temporally, through periodic changes in the environment. The use of such enrichment in order to increase enclosure complexity brings numerous benefits to the animals; furthermore, the public is highly influences by the aesthetics of an exhibit. if zoo visitors see an animal in a naturalistic environment, there is a higher chance that the public will begin to associate animal and habitat and even better, realise that the two are interdependent. Millions of people visit the zoo each year, and often, many of their attitudes are a product of what they see at the zoo. Therefore, simulated natural environments have critical importance. At a cost per square foot ratio, naturalistic environments are much less expensive than traditional zoo enclosures. For example, an 18,000 square foot naturalistic habitat for gorillas at Woodland Park Zoological Gardens have recently been built at a cost of less than £40 000. A typical Ape House of comparable size would cost at least double if not triple of that amount and still be unable to offer as much environmental complexity. Furthermore, modifying existing enclosures with natural materials have proven to be quite inexpensive. For example, captive felids are usually housed in concrete and tile cages. This type of zoo cage was developed prior to the advent of antibiotics. Modern and sophisticated veterinary care has reduced the need for daily disinfecting of such enclosures. To illustrate, sand, gravel, volcanic rocks, weathered tree branches and sagebrush were added to the caracals’ enclosure to resemble their desert habitat. For the first year, the caracals had free access to an unmodified cage located next door, where they were fed. The animals chose to spend over 80% of their time in the naturalistic enclosure, and are often found carrying food into the more naturalistic enclosure to eat. While the enclosure is still not considered ideal, this brief experiment still proved that quick and easy improvements can be made which provide significant benefits for the animals as well as a more enriched viewing experience for the public.

That food is a vital concern to animals is obvious; its importance, however is often magnified in captivity. Attempts are being made at Woodland Park to offer not only a nutritionally sound diet, but also one which replicates essential characteristics of a natural diet. Gorillas in zoos have traditionally received fruits as a major part of their diet. Commonly, zoos now uses a diet composed principally of vegetables. This change however is not enough. The method and time of presentation is also of special value to the animal, and keepers are often encouraged to use ingenuity in making food available. Prior to the gorillas at Woodland Park zoo being relocated to their new naturalistic enclosures, food was often presented in paper sacks or cardboard boxes which prolonged the discovery and eating time for the animals. Peanut butter was sometimes smeared all over a metal grating in which the gorillas would spend hours cleaning it off. In the new enclosure, food is periodically scattered around to give animals an opportunity to forage among the tall grass and dense shrubs. Major feedings for the gorillas occur early in the morning and late afternoon. This is not the best time in regard to public visitation since the majority stick to the old ways of visiting the zoo at the worst time of day- between noon and mid-afternoon. It is beneficial to the animal, however if feeding patterns similar to its natural situation are followed. Thus, schedules feeding times have been abolished at Woodland Park. They were, in any case, only designated for the excitement and convenience of visitors who had little option but to watch bored and inactive animals at all other times. This new feeding regime has brought about some unforeseen benefits. Monkeys will catch and eat insects attracted to flowering vegetation in the enclosures as well as dig up and consume other small creatures from the soil. However, not all is positively perceived by the public. it seems the the public is able to accept that a human has killed an animal which is then offered for food, but cannot tolerate the idea of a tiger killing its own prey. This ideology, often stems as a result of loge-scale food processing masking our own predatory tendencies and therefore divorced the act of killing from the eating of meat. Natural foods undoubtedly offer significant benefits compared to total reliance on commercial prepared of pelleted food. For example, an adult ocelot at Woodland Park had been plucking the hair from its own body only to stop when given a whole chicken carcass to pluck. The ocelot, when given a whole chicken for the first time, plucked off all the feathers and the proceed to violently plucking the grass. Morris descried the plucking behaviour as “breaking like a dam”. The same is also observed when whole sheep carcasses were provide to the snow leopards. The animals spend much time playing with the carcass, pulling it apart, consuming it, and rolling in the skin afterwards. Even if live feedings are not possible, the occasional feeding of whole carcasses will provide the animals with an opportunity to engage in a variety of natural behaviours.

The Effects Enclosure Size on the Behaviour Patterns of Captive Tigers ( Panthera tigris ) by Hsin-I Hsieh

Tigers, like all carnivores spent a large amount of time and energy hunting and foraging in the wild. However, unlike the in the wild, captive tigers are fed restricted amounts of processed food at scheduled times, making it challenging for them to display hunting behaviour. With the strong motivation still remaining, tigers may begin to develop abnormal behavioural patterns. Abnormal behaviours such as stereotypic pacing are often observed. These behaviours often stem from frustration of appetite behaviour, stressful environments or restrictive enclosure size. Therefore, in order to eliminate the chances of these behaviours developing, zoos have been engaged in environmental enrichment. Environmental enrichment have been proved to reduce the occurrence of stereotypic behaviours whilst increasing activity levels as well as enhance these animals’ appetite behaviour. In addition, live prey or other elaborate devices provide opportunities for tigers to perform hunting behaviours such as jumping, pouncing and rolling. Not only did behavioural diversity increase, but the occurrence of stereotypic pacing decreased as well.

Apart from the main aspects of enclosure design such as the size and complexity, there are also other factors that influence the performance of stereotypic behaviour. Adding natural substrates, vegetation, water, features, rocks and other features can minimise stereotypic behaviour. Due to growing concerns for animal welfare, zoo exhibit designs have been increasingly more naturalistic and therefore, by adding elements mentioned prior, the enclosure can not only improve animal welfare but provide educational value for visitors as well. Mellen at al. ( 1998 ) found that felids spend significantly less time pacing in complex exhibits and in exhibits with more visual barriers. Similarly, three-dimensional setups provide elevated complexity in the exhibit which allows the tigers to climb, leap and jump.

This particular study was done on 4 tigers who are kept at the Conservation and Research Centre at Taipei Zoo. This facility is not open to the public and only accessible to the biological research related groups therefore, the facility provides an environment that is less stressful to tigers and allow easier research operations ( i.e individual rotation ). The aim of this study was to examine the effects of different enclosure sizes on behavioural patterns of tigers. It is wildly believed that providing larger space will decrease stereotypic pacing and increase activity. The subjects in this study include one adult female and three adult males. The adult female was captive-born whereas the three male tigers were rescued from a circus in 2006. The four tigers were kept solitarily with their own indoor holding area and outdoor exercise yard. The exercise yard is an enclosed area with a concrete wall situated on one side and stainless net on the rest, allowing the tigers to see each other. All exercise yards contain elevated platforms, pools, vegetation and enrichment facilities inside. The sizes of the 4 adjacent exercise yards, 2 small and 2 large, were arranged alternately with the small yard spanning around 5.2 X 9 m. There is a removable door between 2 exercise yards where when the door is removed, the yards join to become 9.5 X 9 m. Each tiger would stay in each exercise yard for 4 days during the experiment. The data is collected during summer months between July and August. The observation span was from 0900 to 1700hr with the data collected at 30-sec intervals for 50 consecutive minutes in an hour for 4 days in each experiment. A total of 320 hours of observation data were collection during this period. At 30-sec intervals, the animal behaviour and location were recorded. The behaviours were divided into 13 categories but later condensed 5 groups ( rest, activity, foraging, stereotypic pacing, others ) to facilitate analysis. Locations were classified as 4 environmental variables ( concrete floor, natural substrate including vegetation and trees, artificial facility i.e the platform, pool and feeding enrichment, others ).

The limitation of space which may physically restricts the animals from moving to a desired place is thought to be a cause of stereotypic behaviour. In this study, although the results did not reach statistical significance due to a smaller sample size, a trend that the behaviours of the tigers changed in response to the different enclosure size i.e frequency of stereotypic pacing decreased and the activity increased as the enclosure size increase became clear. Although the tigers are observed to have enriched behaviours in the larger exercise yard, it is ought to take into consideration that zoos have space limitations. In this facility’s case, if the yards were arranged in which there are 2 large exercise yards for two tigers, that means that the other two tigers will have to be kept indoors in the indoor holding area. Thus, there is a trade-off between enclosure size and the feasibility of individual rotation. Under different circumstances however, where there are limited space, regular enclosure may be a good way in which the zoo will be able to increase tiger welfare. This is the case as odour left behind by previous tigers may also provide as a stimulant for the olfactory sense and therefore increase activity of the next tiger. Aside from enclosure size, horizontal and vertical spacing are also crucial important spatial factors on how animals utilise their enclosures and therefore ought to be taken into consideration when planning for environmental enrichment. It is also worth noting that providing appropriate environmental variables for tigers is likely to encourage them to use more of the space provided. Within this study, the tigers preferred using the concrete floor as well as the artificial facility ( i.e the platform ) regardless of enclosure size. Providing elevated locations in these enclosures can serve as a space in which the animals can rest, overlook their surroundings and search for potential prey. Since concrete floors were thought to be less hygienic and more odoriferous that natural substrate, artificial facilities can also be applied. For example, additional platforms could be added to different areas of the enclosure to encourage tigers to use the horizontal as well as the vertical space available.

All in all, while a larger enclosure size provided the tigers with more opportunities to run and explore, which can potentially result in a decrease in stereotypic pacing and an increase of activity, moving to a different environment was also observed to have provided similar influences. Therefore, the flexibility for regular enclosure rotation and enclosure complexity are as equally important as the size when designing the exhibit.

The Effects of Physical Characteristics of the Environment and Feeding Regime on the Behaviour of Captive Felids by Jason Lyons

Keeping animals in restricted environments affects their normal patterns through the absence of appropriate exciting stimuli or functional consequences. Such absence of stimuli may cause abnormal behaviours. Abnormal behaviours not observed in the wild are well documented and usually suggests that even though modern enclosures are a big improvement compared to the barren and sterile cages of the past, they are still inadequate. Such patterns found in captive animals may include self-mutilation, copraphagy, lethargy and stereotypies. Stereotypes are rigidly repeated behaviour patterns with no apparent function or goal. These actions may involve parts of the body such as head weaving in stable horses or the whole body, such as pacing commonly found in captive carnivores. The mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of stereotypies are varied. In the case of captive animals, such actions are thought to be a consequence to being housed in a suboptimal or stressful environment where they are unable to influence their surroundings.

Elements of enclosure design such as the size and the complexity influence the performance of stereotypic behaviour. In this study, the relationship between the total use of enclosure space, pacing and cage size is explored. The potential importance of edge ares pf enclosures was also examined. The edges of a captive environment constitute an enforced territorial boundary. It is also a source of several forms of stimulation including viewing of the surroundings and the public, as well as the approaching of staff in preparation for feeding and cleaning purposes. It is predicted the the edges of enclosures may be used proportionally more than non edge areas and are often used specifically for pacing. One important facet of the captive environment is the feeding regime. Animals that are fed restricted amounts of food have been documented to perform a wide range of stereotypies. For example, sows are often observed chewing at bars and chains and the excessive preening, drinking and pecking at non food objects by boiler hens. Such association between feeding and stereotypies arises from the powerful motivation for animals to seek out and consume food. Hughes and Duncan discuss ethological “needs” where an animal finds he process of performing appetitive (foraging) behaviour to be rewarding, as well as the actual consumption of food. In the wild, carnivore devote a large amount of time and energy to hunting behaviour and under atypical circumstances, may also hunt beyond requirements. In captivity, there id little opportunity to express hunting behaviour, while the strong motivation remains. Stereotypic pacing in captive carnivores are often though to stem from a high level of desire to express appetitive behaviour, particularly in the pre-feeding period. Law et al. described a reduction in stereotypic pacing in polar bears when the animals were fed early in the day instead of later in the evening. Shepherdson et al. similarly, found reduced pacing in small captive felids when food was hidden around the enclosure at varied times. This techniques aids in satisfying the need to express foraging behaviour as well as more general information gathering, by encouraging exploration.

In this study, two feeding regimes currently used at Edinburgh Zoo during February and March 1994 were explored to compare any visible effect upon pacing behaviour in captive felids. There were nine species of felids and a total of eleven enclosures studied within this study. Individuals of the same species were housed together with the exception of 2 jaguars, a female snow leopard and the cheetahs. The separations of the cheetahs allowed for a comparison of behaviour under two different conditions. The felids were fed under two established feeding regimes. One group was fed daily with the cheetahs being fed every morning and evening, the jungle cat every morning and the lions and lynx every evening. This was mostly kept consistent but on occasion, the cheetahs were fed only once a day and the lynx, periodically not fed for a day. The second group consisting of tigers, jaguars, leopards and snow leopards wren normally fed every third day, mostly in the morning. This feeding regime was inspired by the wild feeding habits where wild felids will eat large amounts at a single meal. The meals varied in type and preparation, depending on availability. The meals included meat ‘on the bone’, chicks and chicken carcasses with surplus food and the occasional batches of eggs sometimes used for supplementary feeds. All cats with the exception of the lynx, jungle cat and the cheetahs were locked up whilst food was scattered within the enclosures. Activity and location were recorded using instantaneous scan sampling with data being recorded during four 1-hr sessions each day. The enclosures are visited on a fixed route with each enclosure sampled approximately every 15 minutes and the results obtained in each sample are considered independent. The observation sessions began at 07:45, 10:30, 14:30 and 16:30. These times were chosen to sample behaviour throughout the day and were designed to record pre/post feeding behaviour for morning and/or evening meals. Five hundred and sixty scans were made on each enclosure with every scan documenting the location of the animal onto a map of the enclosure that has been divided into 2 x 2 metre grid subdivisions. Behaviour was recorded in one of 14 categories which later reduced down to 6. These categories are locomoting, stereotypic pacing, observing, resting and not visible. The apparent movement of each individual was recorded by noting how far to the nearest metre that individual had moved since the previous scan sample obtained in the same 1-hr recording session. Any movement was not recorded in the initial scan of each observation session. The view of the horizon from the enclosure was also assessed by photographing the horizon from the rear ledge of each enclosure with ratings given according to how much the horizon is obscured.

Stereotypic pacing was recored at varying levels between 1% and 32% in 79% of the cats. The results were then categorised according to their deviation from the mean (7%) and the results, displayed in a percentage deviation figure. The results showed three broad categories. Average and near average pacers which included snow leopards, a male cheetah, a male jaguar, a male leopard and a male persian leopard; above average pacers including the female jaguar, male persian leopard and male lion as well as those that paced well below average- the lynx, the female cheetah and the jungle cat. During this study, tigers did to show any pacing. When the percentage of time each animal spent pacing was compared against the total enclosure area measured in metres squared, it is suggested that animals in smaller enclosures paced more, however, the difference is not statistically significant. The values obtained from the cheetahs were not included in the making up of the conclusion as the animals were separated and later united during the course of the observations.

All in all, the size of the enclosure can hold impact on the development of abnormal behaviour patterns but its total size was not found to be a major factor in pacing activity. Whereas the complexity of the environment is more likely to be important in affecting behaviour. The separation of animals from conspecifics has also been found to be a factor of abnormal behaviour. In particular, two cheetahs who participated in this study showed signs of pacing along the dividing barrier when separated suggesting that the view of conspecifics on the adjacent enclosure can be potentially stressful on the animal. Therefore, if conspecifics are to be separated, keeping them out of sight or as well as prevent communication between the two animals may reduce stress. Such prescience, therefore can be included in the list of stimuli which originate at the edges of the enclosures where animals perform most of the pacing activity. As felids are inactive exhibit animals, there is much more emphasis on the quality of the enclosure in order to simulate natural behaviour patterns. However, it is still important to determine how total size of the enclosure replaces to the activity of confined animals. This study found that cats in larger enclosures preformed higher levels of average movement and the Spread Participation Index in particular showed that only 50% of the total enclosure is used by the animals with the lions the female lynx and the female jaguar using significantly less. However, felids that were found to use more than 50% of their enclosures were the female Persian Leopard, the female tiger and the male snow leopard with each animal also showing comparatively higher levels of moment. Therefore, felids housed in larger enclosures showed greater use of them and were found to be more active. Elevated locations were also found to be used where available and in enclosures where more were available, the cats spent less time on the substrate especially when the elevated location provided a good view of the horizon. Thus, suggesting that such enrichment can have positive effects upon felid behaviour. Similarly, tigers at Glasgow Zoo were observed to perform an increase in stalking behaviour when provided a viewing platform which allowed them to observe activity going on in a local horse riding school.

It is not uncommonly for lions in the wild to spend 20-21 hours resting and become active during the late afternoon and follow a nocturnal-crepuscular activity pattern. Grooming is a highly expressed behaviour in lions and can involve head rubbing and social licking and has been associate to grooming often observed between primates. Estes described head rubbing as a form of closed affectionate contact and Schaller describes its association with social licking. Small cubs are often groomed by females and especially liked by their mother and play involving running, quick turns, rolling, climbing and wrestling are often performed as a learning process through which cubs learn how to coordinate, control and develop muscles. Play in lion cubs specifically will involve stalking, ambushing and grappling motor patterns which is often used by adult lions to capture prey. Such behaviour is therefore learnt through watching adults hunt. Young mammals such as lions may require familia surroundings of the presence of the mother or a object of familiarity before they are able to engage in play. For example, Schenkel observed lion cubs behaving cryptically and showing no play or exploratory behaviour in the absence of the mother. Diverse array of behaviours whether active or stereotypic are exhibited in lion cubs in natural environments where complexities in the environment place physical and cognitive demands on the animals. These demands motivates them to perform behaviours necessary for survival and such behaviours are further reinforced by confidence instilled in the cubs by adult lions.

Several studies have documented the effects of captivity on animal welfare and have recognised that captivity can drastically alter an animal’s behaviour. As a result of a predictable, often unchanging environment, captive animals may lose the rage of behaviours that will enable them to respond to a variable and unpredictable environment. Yu et al. identified low behavioural diversity, abnormal behaviours and excessive inactivity as common problems in captive animals which has led to the development of several methods on the raising of lions in captivity and environmental enrichment has since been recognised as an effective principle for increasing captive animal welfare. With this in mind, the IUCN recommends a number of guidelines for raising lions in captivity including the need for large natural areas with sufficient drainage. The importance of differences in selective pressures between wild settings and captive ones has been a matter of discussion, especially when considering the release of captive born and reared animals back into the wild. Behavioural enrichment involves the introduction of toys, play objects and smells into lion enclosures and natural walks in order to enhance active behaviours and familiarise lion cubs to the natural environment. Such enrichment enables captive animals to exhibit a diverse array of behaviours through increasing the complexity of the captive environment, encouraging social interactions and improving health whilst reducing abnormal behaviours as well as increase the chance of survival when reintroduced into the wild. The enclosure size and simplicity can negatively affect the welfare of captive animals resulting in boredom, an inability to cope with ordinary stressors, lack of motivation, lack of opportunity to perform natural species-specific behaviours and therefore case the development of inactive, abnormal or repetitive behaviour. In the wild, environmental complexities provide animals with stimulants that encourage them to perform behaviours that are essential to surviving thus, conservation breeding and reintroduction into the wild can only be successful if these behaviours crucial to a life in the wild is maintained in captivity. This study’s aim is to investigate the influence of behavioural enrichment on socially deprived orphan-raised cubs in comparison to mother-raised lion cubs. We used time activity budgets since interrelations between species ecology and behaviour are better understood thrust the analysis of how that particular species allocates time to various activities under a set of defined conditions.

The lion cubs at Antelope Park and Masuwe were behaviourally enriched using toys such as sticks, grass and fresh dung from elephant, zebra, impala, duiker, kudu and wildebeest. The enrichment sessions were replicated three times for each stimuli alternating the stimulus object between scans. By providing behavioural enrichment, keepers aimed to increase the behavioural repertoire of captive lion cubs and consequently, reduced the development of abnormal behaviours. Furthermore, by providing enrichment, zoos also aims to encourage positive utilisation of the whole enclosure snd in the long term, prepare the lion cubs for eventual introduction to the wild. In this study, three study sites were selected- Chipangali, Antelope Park and Masuwe. Lions are raised in captivity at these three sites and the only difference is in the social upbringing. Cubs at Masuwe and Antelope Park are raised as orphans whilst cubs at Chipangali are mother-raised. The cubs were watched for a duration of ten days at each site and activity pattern was recorded as locomotion, resting, playing, grooming, visual exploration and display of hunting instincts. Observations were carried out from left to right and back, alternating between scans recording the behaviour of each cub during every round of scan. The observer had no interaction with the animals and there was no public viewing of cubs during data collection.

Activity patterns were different between Chipangali and Antelope Park and between Chipangli and Masuwe, with the exception of grooming which was similar across the three locations, locomotion was observed to be performed significantly higher in orphan-raised cubs than in mother-raised cubs. There was also a significant increase in resting in mother-raised cubs than orphan-raised cubs at Antelope Park and Masuwe. The average time spent playing by orphan-raised cubs at Antelope Park and Masuwe was higher than mother-raised cubs at Chipangli. There was no significant difference in time spent grooming by lion cubs amongst the three locations. Lion cubs raised by their mother engage in more visual exploration than orphan-raised lion cubs. Finally, hunting instincts were more pronounced in orphan-raised cubs than mother-raised cubs. Furthermore, a difference in activity pattern amongst time treatments at the three locations was also observed. Locomotion was significantly different amongst time treatments at all location and occurred mainly during early morning and late afternoon. Time spent resting was significantly higher during mid-morning than during early morning and late afternoon at all locations. At Chipangli, play significantly declined from early morning to mid-morning to late afternoon for the mother-raised cubs. On the other hand, the orphan-raised cubs at Antelope Park and Masuwe was observed to play significantly higher during the late afternoon than early morning and mid-morning. Mother-raised cubs at Chipangli spent more time grooming in the morning than during mid-morning and late afternoon. Amongst orphan-raised cubs, grooming was confined to the mid-morning and late afternoon at Antelope Park and Masuwe. Although, there was significant difference in visual exploration among the time treatments by mother-raised lion cubs, the cubs visually explored throughout the day whereas the orphan-raised cubs at Masuwe and Antelope Park where activity was highest mid-morning. Amongst orphan-raised cubs at Antelope Park and Masuwe, the display of hunting instincts took place mostly during late afternoon and was significantly higher than in the mother-raised cubs at Chipangli.

All in all, lions spend a great percentage of their time resting. In a similar manner, mother-raised cubs were found to spend more time resting and were also spending relatively little time moving, which could be a result of being confined in cages. Which is consistent with the findings by Schaller, Bertram and Estes orphan-raised lion cubs spent considerable time playing, mostly during midday. Grooming was similar in both groups, contrary to expectations of increased grooming in mother-raised cubs as lion cubs are licked by their mother. However, grooming in orphan raised cubs was relatively low, although not different, because small cubs are groomed heavily by females but do little grooming themselves. Visual exploration was also found to be more pronounced in mother-raise cubs, which probably is a product of local traditions based on learning from the mother than in orphan-raised cubs. Imprinting usually takes place soon after birth and is a unique form of learning acquired from the mother or mother figure by the young animal and this could also explain higher rate of visual exploration in mother-raised cubs. Orphan-raised cubs also displayed more frequently hunting behaviours which could be attributed to the behavioural enrichment that takes place in the former. Therefore suggesting that behaviour enrichment can have profound effects on the activity patterns of captive lion cubs. Several studies show that animals express more natural behaviours when given the opportunity. The lack of hunting instinct displayed and the reduced locomotion of mother-raised cubs could be the result of a lack of behavioural enrichment. Chipangli lion cubs spend most of their time inactive ( or resting ) but can benefit from behavioural and environmental enrichment as it increases their activity as seen in the Antelope Park and Masuwe cubs. This study also showed that mother-raised cubs benefit from learning from their mother and visually scan their environment.

Behavioural Analysis of Captive Tigers : A water pool makes the difference by Cristina Biolatti

Wild tigers tend to occupy extensive territories ranging from 7 to 1000km^2, which cannot reasonably be provided in captivity. Pacing in the main and most frequent form of stereotypy that felids develop when kept in captivity. This type of abnormal behaviour often stems from the animals having typically occupy large home ranges in the wild. nonetheless, ensuring adequate welfare not requires not only fulfilling essential needs and preventing the onset of stereotypes, but also encouraging animals to express their most complete behavioural repertoire, providing resources towards which animals are motivated only when more immediate deficiencies have been met. Promoting positive experiences is not way in which the zoos can provide captive animals a better quality of life, safeguard as well as potentially improve their health status. Apart from the improvement of animal welfare, such experiences may also benefit zoo visitors. As visitor become increasingly attuned to animal welfare, visitors often expect to see animals engaged in natural behaviours and can recognise the main stereotypes displayed by the animals. For example, when a tiger is seen pacing by the visitors, they tend to think that the animal is receiving lower levels of care than if they were to see the animal resting. Watching animals displaying positive behaviours may also increase the visitors’ connection to wildlife and knowledge about the animals, turning it into an educative experience that can result in an interest of conservation. Education and conservation are among the main purposes of modern zoos, as required by law in the European Union. Behaviours can be considered as powerful welfare indicators because they reflect an animal’s first attempts to cope with a stressor and so may indicate a situation where welfare is at risk at an early stage.

This study includes four privately owned zoological gardens ( A, B, C, D ). Zoos C and D are safari parks, where it is possible to rive through the enclosure where tigers are displayed. The study population was seven, captive-born tigers, three males and for females. All we’re adult individuals with ages ranging from 4 to 17 years with all except one housed in pairs. The tigers were on exhibit in their outdoor enclosures everyday, from morning to late afternoon, with on-exhibition time varying between zoos and seasons. All enclosures can be considered naturalistic with areas ranging anywhere from 700 to 10 000 m^2. The tigers in zoos A and B were separated from the public point of view by glass either partly or entirely. Trees, logs, elevated platforms and water pools were the main enclosure furnishings. Though all enclosures included a water pool, the water level was low, dirty or muddy in some. Data on the quality of shade, presence of areas visually inaccessible to visitors’ sight and the presence and quality of the enclosure furnishings were recorded.

In order to be able to process all of the data collected, the activity budgets of each tiger and the overall activity budget were constructed by calculating the percentage of time each behaviour was observed over the whole observation period. However, in some circumstances, the observer was unable to view the animals due to a visual barrier ( i.e cars, a large group of people, enclosure furnishings ). These records were excluded from further analysis. On the other hand, the clear intentions of animals to hide in shelters or vegetation was recorded as “intentional out of sight” and considered for analysis. On the basis of prior review papers, some of the behaviours listed in the ethograms were labelled as indicators of diminished welfare (pacing, aggression, fleeing, avoidance) and others were labelled as indicators of enhanced welfare (self-grooming, immersion, affiliative behaviours, intentional out of sight, interaction with environment). Any behaviour expressed for less than 20 in of total time has been excluded from further statistical analysis due to the inclusion in the model of those space data would have added rumours and casualty to the output. A multinomial logistic regression model was then fitted in order to determine in which zoo the tigers were more prone to exhibit behaviours labelled as indicators of enhanced welfare. In order to identify which aspects had a major effect on tiger welfare, animal peculiarity, daily routine management and enclosure features that can potentially influence the welfare status of captive tigers were listed, categorised and analysed using a mixed-effects models for binary responses.

The main item on the activity budget was the time spent sleeping (32.64 %), followed by resting (27.5%) and walking (17.3%). All the tigers displayed indicators of diminished welfare for 0.69% of the total observation, with pacing accounting for 0.43% of time. No episodes of aggression with physical contact between the tigers are observed. Indicators of enhanced welfare were observed in 11.74% of recordings. The behaviours excluded from further analysis due to being performed for less than 20 minutes were avoid, run, body shake, flee, jump, stretch, aggression and scratch. Behaviours labelled as indicators of enhanced welfare were more often expressed by the tigers hosted in zoo A and zoo C than those in zoos B and D. Among the variables describing animal peculiarity, daily routine management and enclosure features, the presence of a water pool with clean water was significantly associated with the expression of indicators of enhanced welfare. Water pools are structural features that international guidelines recommend to be present in tiger enclosures. The presence of a body of water has been already observed to increased exploratory behaviours and reduce stereotypic pacing. Moreover, entering in a pool can elect a natural behaviour since wild tigers like water and can swim for kilometres.

ZSL London Zoo's Tiger Territory.

As Zoo Design is such a wide subject, I have decided to start look at Zoo Design by using Jack Self's four criteria in what makes a good architecture in hopes of being able to look at the individual elements properly and in good detail. I have chosen these four criteria as suppose to making my own as I felt that the only difference between normal architecture an zoo architecture is its residents therefore it would only be fitting if I view zoo architecture the way I normally would with normal architecture.

Looking at Zoo Design through the Lens of Jack Self.

The Tiger Territory for me personally, was very interesting to visit given all the information surrounding enclosure design as well as the impact enclosure design can have on the animals. Tiger territory includes two enclosures, separate by a boarder of glass providing as a barrier but still allow the animas view of each other as well as surrounding vegetation. Which is a very key element in enclosures of this nature especially in felid enclosures as Mellen at al. ( 1998 ) found that felids spend significantly less time pacing in complex exhibits and in exhibits with more visual barriers. This coupled with an elevated platform offered in both enclosures ensure the tigers behavioural as well as psychological needs are met. The elevated platform seen in both enclosures serve as a space in which the animals can rest, overlook their surroundings and search for potential prey as well as add additional enclosure complexity allowing the animals optimum use of the enclosure space both vertically and horizontally. “Elevated locations were also found to be used where available and in enclosures where more were available, the cats spent less time on the substrate especially when the elevated location provided a good view of the horizon.” in the study, ‘The Effects of Physical Characteristics of the Environment and Feeding Regime on the Behaviour of Captive Felids’ done by Jason Lyons and therefore, by including these elements within the enclosure the zoo can provide positive effects upon felid behaviour and therefore prevent development of Stereotypic Behaviour which often stems pent up frustration as a result of lack of stimuli. The enclosure also included plastic balls and rope in order for the tigers to play and encourage natural behaviour which also plays a crucial part in improving felid behaviour as D.M.Powell found in ‘Preliminary Evaluation of Environmental Enrichment Techniques for African Lions’ that large felids “likely to be stimulated only by objects that are alien to their daily care taking routine and may interact more with objects that are manipulatable.” The effects of the addition of these elements are clearly seen when the tigers appeared more alert and often participated in play with both the enrichment and no stereotypic behaviour was observed suggested enhanced welfare.

Even though the architecture surrounding the enclosure were not as decorated as other parts of the Zoo and instead were kept simple, I have observed that the visitors ended up paying more attention to the tigers and the enclosure itself more as supposed to the surrounding decor. I personally, prefer the enclosure being the main focus as I felt that it is important for zoos to promote education as well as conservation about these animals and therefore by simulating an authentic and naturalistic enclosure, “there is a higher chance that the public will begin to associate animal and habitat and even better, realise that the two are interdependent”; as found by David Hancocks in ‘Bringing Nature into the Zoo: Inexpensive Solutions for Zoo Environments’. However, M.C.Fabregas et al. still found that although ”naturalistic designs in providing environmental resources that enable the animals’ biological needs, a suitable environment does not guarantee animal welfare.” Therefore, by observing the animals for only a limited amount of time (i.e one day) I felt is not enough to be conclusive despite all of the positive behaviour observed.

I felt that it was beneficial in order for me to visit the enclosure and see how the design of the enclosure impacts its inhabitants, its interaction with the animals as well as how the visitors make use of such design as even though study papers provide a good starting point and were able to specify a set of criteria indicates enhanced welfare and therefore a good enclosure design, it is still very important to take into account that animals are all different and even though the animals are the same species as the ones mentioned in the study paper, the guidelines that worked for the animals included in the study may not always work for the ones located at Tiger Territory. With this in mind, I would like to spend my summer visiting and observing both the tigers at my workplace as well as the tigers in surrounding zoos in order to see the different enclosure designs at each establishment provide for its inhabitants, compare them against each other and see if there were any similarities throughout the enclosures.

Land of the Lions at ZSL London Zoo

The Land of Lions is a new addition to London Zoo that I have visited this week. The exhibit included two lion enclosures surrounded by replicas and furnishings designed in order to replicate the origin of its residents, the Asianic lions. By decorating the surrounding environment as such. Ethnic art, artefacts, architecture and even villages can also add an interesting cultural dimension to the visitor experience, telling stories of interactions between people and wildlife, a concept made famous by Carl Hagenbeck (1909). The relics of stalls and decor are all based on what the team of ZSL staff based in Gir felt where significant to the location. This included patrol cars, road signs, posters and road art with every decor interlaced with information in regards to the lions and their surroundings in order to ensure a more authentic experience as well as educational. I really liked how the Zoo has taken time to include pieces of information throughout the decor as apart from getting an ‘authentic’ experience, the visitors can also get an insight to what it is like to be in Gir and in such close proximity to the local wildlife.

In the middle of the exhibit lies two adjacent enclosures that provide as a house for the four resident lions. One of the enclosures aim to simulate where the natural environment of the lions and the residents of the people of Gir overlap by decorating the enclosure with train tracks and signs as well as being partially hidden, only accessible through the opening of a building. This exhibit design was a perfect middle ground between Immersion design and the earlier Modernist style. By designing and decorating the enclosure as such, coupled with the obvious use of modern construction materials and technology, used in most off-exhibit areas, the exhibit allows for a display where durability, flexibility and functionalism are of top priority.

The second enclosure is what many categorise as a "naturalistic" enclosure, simulating the animal's natural environment with wooden platforms, vegetation and rocks surrounded by what appears to be faux rock walls. The positive effect of such enclosure design on animal welfare is due to the fact that these designs create a captive environment that effectively offers the animals the necessary resources in order to cater to their biological needs and hence, improve welfare. However, "naturalistic" design has not always been well recieved,in a study conducted at Atlanta Zoo, Georgia in 1988, the decrease of the visibility of gorillas in their new naturalistic exhibit resulted in a decrease of satisfaction for the visitors. However, despite not satisfying a small percentage of visitors, I felt that this enclosure provided more stimulants for its residents than the one prior, hence, the lions housed in this enclosure was observed to be more alert.

Even though the enclosure provided substantial stimulants for its residents, I still felt that more could have been added to the actual animal enclosures in terms of enclosure furnishings, as when put up against the very decorated exterior of the exhibit, the enclosure felt empty and unimportant.

All in all, even though I felt that the enclosures were less than satisfactory in both the amount of stimulants and size, M.C.Fabregas et al. found that although ”naturalistic designs in providing environmental resources that enable the animals’ biological needs, a suitable environment does not guarantee animal welfare.” as well as Lions often spending up to 21 hours per day resting coupled with an absence of stereotypic behaviour therefore it is not reliable enough to judge the suitability of an enclosure based on its proportions and furnishings hence, whether or not the enclosure is suitable for the animals is still inconclusive.

Lions are harder to cater for in terms of enrichment and overall exhibit furnishing as in the wild coupled with the fact that lions are social animals with a typical pride of lions may containing up to 15 members, most Zoos do not have the facilities or the funds to house an entire pride of lions, which in turns limits opportunities for the lions to demonstrate complex social behaviours that are often observed in the wild. However, apart from providing enhanced welfare to the animals, I still really liked how the zoo tried to replicate the location as well as the circumstances in which these lions are removed from, by providing an authentic enclosure, and thus, resulting in “a higher chance that the public will begin to associate animal and habitat and even better, realise that the two are interdependent”; as found by David Hancocks in ‘Bringing Nature into the Zoo: Inexpensive Solutions for Zoo Environments’. Which is very important.

Throughout Why Look at Animals, John Berger has shown his ever growing concern of the loss of a meaningful connection man has with nature, a connection that can now only be rediscovered through beauty. John Berger talks about how in ancient times, man and animal had an “unspeaking companionship” suggesting that animals are "reminders of origin, or as moral metaphors" and hence, by observing , man has learnt a lot of valuable lessons not only in survival, but spiritually as well, helping him understand his position in nature.

Animals right from the start “entered the imagination as messengers and promises.”, accompanying man at the centre of his world, constituting the “first circle that surrounded man”. “Everywhere animals offered explanations..lent their name or character to a quality, which like all qualities, was in its essence, mysterious.” which can be seen when they were placed in “eight out of twelve signs of the zodiac” and often “subjected and worshipped, bred and sacrificed.”Yet there was also another element that drew us closer to these animals - some sort of singular comfort they offered. This comfort is believed to has stem from the belief of unconditional affection pets provide, a lack of conditions largely premised on their inability to speak or talk back in human language complimented by their capability to communicate directly to our soul coupled with how animals are often seen to be so different yet similar to man. Berger wrote “With their parallel lives, animals offer man a companionship which is different from any offered by human exchange. Different because it is a companionship offered to the loneliness of man as a species.”, “The pet completes him, offering responses to aspects of his character”, offering “its owner a mirror to a part that is otherwise never reflected.”

This ancient relationship between nature and man has been broken by the consumer era. Where animals such as cows, considered elite and grateful in 18th century paintings now marginalised and assimilated into the sinister culture of object desire and possession. When public zoos started emerging in the 19th century, animals began to disappear from our daily lives. Appearing as “an endorsement of modern colonial power.", where the capturing of animals became a "symbolic representation of the conquest”, often provided to the zoo by a patriotic “Explorer” hence, the "exotic animal to the metropolitan zoo became a token in subservient diplomatic relations”, "These animals have become prisoners of a human/social situation”. Furthermore, animals have been now pushed to the boundaries of society, loosing its “central importance. Mostly..co-opted into the family and into the spectacle.”

This is where zoological parks come in, identifying as a compensatory innovation, they instead “belonged to the same remorseless movement as was dispersing the animals.” and even though zoos often claims itself as “another kind of museum, whose purpose was to further knowledge and public enlightenment”, they instead, to Berger, has become “..demonstrations of how animals had been rendered absolutely marginal.” "The Zoo cannot but disappoint." says Berger, “Public Zoos came into existence.. to see the disappearance of animals” and the animals contained within the facility are perceived to be “living monument to their own disappearance.”, used "en masse to "people situations””, “prisoners of a human/social situation”. Often found in their close confinement, where furnishings act like “theatre props” but for the animal, “the bare minimum of an environment”.

Why Look at Animals ?

"What we habitually see confirms us."

Ways of Seeing

“Seeing comes before words. The Child looks and recognises before it can speak.”

In Ways of Seeing, Berger writes about how seeing aids us in establishing our place in the world that surrounds us, “we explained that world with words” Berger said “but words can never undo the fact that we are surrounded by it.” The relation between what we see and our knowledge is never settled. We see the sun set, we know that the earth is turning away from it; yet even though we are given the knowledge, the explanation never quite fits the sight. The Surrealist painter Magritte touched upon this constant gap between seeing and words in The Key of Dreams. The way we see things is ultimately “affected by what we know or what we believe.”. For example, men in the Middle Ages associated the physical existence of Hell with the presence of fire. This association although no longer present, suggests that the idea of Hell back then stemmed heavily from the “sight of fire consuming and the ashes remaining”, grounded even further by the experience of the pain as a result of burns. “Yet this seeing which comes before words..is not a question of mechanically reacting to stimuli” Berger writes, “We can only see what we look at. To look is an act of choice.” Therefore, as a result, what we see is brought to the centre of our attention, unlike the act of touching, seeing doesn’t necessarily allow us to touch. As our vision is constantly active and moving, bouncing back and fro from one object to another, “We never look at just one thing; we are always looking at the relation between things and ourselves” suggested Berger.

Unlike seeing, “An Image is a sight which has been recreated of reproduced. It is an appearance, or a set of appearances..detached from the place and time.” Images were initially made with the intention of conjuring up the “appearances of something that was absent”. However, as time passes by, it became evident that images outlast what they represent; showing a person or object stopped in time and thus, indicated how they have been seen by other people. From this, Berger “No other kind of relic or text from the past can offer such a direct testimony about the world which surrounded other people at other times.” and thus, in this respect, “images are more precise and richer than literature.” Yet, when an image is presented as a work of art, the way in which it is perceived is often affected by a series of learnt assumptions about art. These include: “Beauty, Truth, Genius, Civilization, Form, Status, Taste, etc.” and as many of these assumptions are no longer accurate to the world as it is now hence, being out of true with the present, these assumptions “mystify rather than clarify".

The invention of the camera was one that changed the way men saw. It isolates momentary appearances and in doing so, destroy the idea that images were timeless. Cameras showed that the “notion of time passing was inseparable from the experience of the visual”, and instead depending on location and time. Relative to the person’s position in time an space. “The camera - and more particularly the movie camera demonstrated that there was no centre”, for the Impressionists,”the visible no longer presents itself to man in order to be seen” hence, the visible becoming fugitive. For Cubists, “the visible was no longer what confronted the single eye”, but conjured up by possible views taken from points that surround the subject that was being depicted.

Cameras also changed the way men see paintings. Originally, “paintings were an integral part of the building for which they were designed. Sometimes in an early Renaissance church or chapel” therefore “images on the wall are records of the building’s interior life” hence, “so much are they part of the particularity of the building.”. “The uniqueness of a painting was once a part of the uniqueness of the place they reside in”Berger wrote, sometimes transportable, but never at two places at the same time. When the camera captures and consequently reproduces a painting, the uniqueness of its image is lost, multiplying and fragmenting into many meanings. This occurrence often illustrated by what occurs when a painting is shown on a television screen. Because of the camera, “ the painting now travels to the spectator rather than the spectator to the painting.”, diversifying it meaning in the process. Although one can argue that all reproductions distort in some way or another, alternatively, one can forget about the quality of reproduction and be reminded, when presented the original, that it is “a famous painting in which somewhere one has already seen a reproduction.” Hence, the painting gaining “uniqueness of the original” solely due to it “being the original of a reproduction.”

“It is no longer what its image shows that strikes one as unique; its first meaning is no longer to be found in what it says, but in what it is.”

“In the age of pictorial reproduction, the meaning of paintings is no longer attached to them.” Berger writes. The paintings’ meaning becomes transmittable, turning information of sort, and like all other information, either put to use or ignored. Informations carries no authority within itself, therefore when used, its meaning becomes modified or totally changed. For example, “Reproduction isolates the detail of a painting from the whole.”, transforming the detail, as to which the allegorical figure becomes a portrait of a girl. When a film camera reproduces a painting, the film camera reduces the painting to only a “material for the film-maker’s argument”, lending its authority to the film-maker. ”In a painting, all its elements are there to be seen simultaneously” Berger explains, and it is up to the spectator to travel back and fro in observing the painting, reaching a conclusion where the “simultaneity of the whole painting” can therefore reverse or qualify his conclusion. Reproduced paintings, like all existing information, “have to hold their own against all the other information being continually transmitted.”, sometimes lending itself as a reference point for other images. Its meaning altered by what is placed beside it or what comes immediately after. “Original paintings are silent and still in a sense that information never is.”, never justifiable by the reproduction on the wall, the original “permeates the actual material, the paint, in which one follows the traces of the painter’s immediate gestures.”. For the first time ever, images of art have become “ephemeral, ubiquitous, insubstantial, available, valueless, free.”, surrounding us the same way a language does, entering the “mainstream life” in which they no longer have power.

Safari World Lion Department.

To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key.

Enclosure Facilities

Trees ( See Fig. 1 )
- Create areas of shade for the lions
- There was less trees in this area as supposed to others due to lions prefer staying in princes and therefore, too many trees may not leave enough space for the lions to stay with each other
- Instinctively, lions do not like the sunlight as sunlight foils most efforts to sneak up on prey
Sand + Rocks ( See Fig. 1 )
- To create a ‘naturalistic’ environment that is reminiscent of their natural environment, consisting of scrub, grasslands or open woodlands.
- “when designing an animal enclosure, consideration must be given to the species’ original environments” - ‘Do Naturalistic Enclosures Provide Suitable Environments for Zoo Animals?’ by M.C.Fabregas et al.
- “if the zoo visitors see an animal in a naturalistic environment , they have a better chance to realise..that there is a link between animal and habitat..that the two are interdependent.” - ‘Bringing Nature into the Zoo: Inexpensive Solutions for Zoo Environments’ by David Hancocks
- “..naturalistic exhibit design..can increase animal welfare as well as the education value for visitors” -‘Effects of Enclosure Size on the Behaviour Patterns of Captive Tigers’ by H.Hsieh, H.Kuo, F.Fu and M.Chang
Double Door system ( See Fig. 2-4 )
- The individually controlled doors allow keepers to separate animals when necessary
- When allowing animals into the enclosure in the morning, the door that connects a cage to the one adjacent is left open to allow lions from the rear cage to walk to the front cage where the door to the enclosure is located
- The door of the cage is 1.30 m in height in order to allow lions ( males are 1.20m and females are .090m ) to easily walk through

Fig. 4

Environmental Effects on the Behaviour of Zoo Housed Lions and Tigers, with a Case Study of the Effects of a Visual Barrier on Pacing by Meredith J. Bashaw

Although at least one big cat exhibit can be seen in almost every zoo, big cat exhibits can be frustrating and disappointing for the visitors (Carlsbad, 1998). Most modern zoos use naturalistic exhibits in an attempt to improve animal well being and visitor’s perceptions of, and respect for animals (Finlay, James & Maple, 1988). However, when visual barriers are combined with the natural camouflage of these animals, the animals may become difficult fro the visitors to see (Bashaw & Maple, 2001). This problem may also be made worst by the animal’s inactivity during peak visitor hours (10:00 to 15:00; Bitgood, Patterson, & Benefeild, 1988), and the possibility of the animal developing pacing stereotypies in which can be interpreted as an indicative of stress of boredom by the visitors (Carlstead, 1998). Indeed, stereotypic behaviours, including pacing, can often be signs of compromised well being (Broom, 1991). Amongst the documents that have been written by numerous authors the difference in behaviour of animals when housed in different environments, the housing variables that have been demonstrated to influence animal behaviour are:

Whether the enclosure is indoors or outdoors (Hoff, Forthman, & Maple, 1994)
The social density of animals (Tenneson, 1989)
The presence of objects in addition to substrate (Ogden, Lindburg, & Maple, 1993; Wilson, 1982)
The amount of surface area (Neveu & Deputte, 1996; Perkins, 1992)
The quantity of visual barriers, retreat spaces, or hiding places ( Anderson, Benne, Bloomsmith, & Maple, 2002; Carlstead, 1991; Mellen, Hayes, & Sheperdson, 1998)
The presence of visitors (Mitchell et al., 1991)
Erwin and Deni (1979), Stevenson (1983), and Carlstead (1998) are only a few of the authors to suggest that stereotypic behaviours, including pacing, “are a result of an abnormal organism-environment interaction” (Carlsbad, 1998, p. 172).

Wild tigers and Lion are nocturnal animals, with tigers being truly nocturnal, mainly active between 19:00 and 05:00 each day(Sankhala, 1997;Schaller, 1972). Lions’ activity peaks are after 17:00 and before 08:00(Schiller, 1972). The flexibility of lions and tigers to become active during the day likely accounts for the daytime activity under captive conditions when animals are shifted between environments and when feedings occur during the day. Increases in the frequency of feeding small felids have increased behavioural diversity and exploratory behaviour whilst reducing the duration and frequency of stereotypic pacing (Sheperdson, Carlstead, Mellen, & Seidensticker, 1993).

Within the observational study, all large felids were found to have a significant difference in resting time by time of dat, with more time spent resting in midday (12:00-14:00) and afternoon (14:00-16:00) sessions than in the morning (10:00-12:00) session. For non-stereotypic activity, the opposite trend was evident as more time was spent active in the morning session than in the midday or afternoon. Large felids also showed consistent differences in behaviour as a function of their daytime housing. Lions spent a significantly greater proportion of their time resting on exhibit than when off exhibit, a significantly smaller proportion of their time resting but awake on exhibit than off exhibit. Lions also paced for significantly greater proportion of time off exhibit than on exhibit. In fact, pacing was never observed on exhibit, whereas it occurred in 7% scans off exhibit. For tigers, although less non-stereotypic activity and more pacing were exhibited in the small exhibit than at the large exhibit, the results were not significant.

Large felids’ activity budget varies by time of day, with the animals being most active in the morning and late afternoon and spent most time resting at midday. Therefore, these activity patterns have implications for the experience of zoo visitors. Visitors tend to find active animals more interesting, as indicated by greater attention to an active animal’s behaviour (Bitgood, Patterson, & Benefield, 1986, 1988) and a longer time spent at exhibits when animals are active (Jackson, 1994). Visitors tend to associate high presence of stereotypic behaviour as indicative of stress and boredom (Carlsbad, 1998). The midday inactivity peak, supported Bitgood et al.’s (1998) cross-species study, which suggested large felids where inactive much of peak zoo-visitor hours (10:00-15:00), and therefore, added interpreters or interactive graphics could engage and educate visitors about why tigers are inactive at midday and hence, suggest better visiting times. Moreover, the behaviour of the same animals were difference when the animals were placed in different housing conditions. The difference in behaviour, particularly stereotypic pacing between exhibits supports Broom’s (1991) conclusion that changes to the environment had the potential to improve well being and create a more enjoyable and educational experience for the zoo visitor (Finlay et al., 1988). The presence and number of visual barriers in exhibits have been identified as the most significant predictor of proportion of time spent pacing in small cats, with an increased number of visual barriers predicting a decrease in time spent pacing ( Carlstead, Brown, & Seidensticker, 1993; Mellen et al., 1998). Mellen et al. found that amount of time spent pacing in small felids varied most with the number of visual barriers. Hence, it is not surprising that animals who are naturally solitary in the wild may exhibit behaviours indicative of stress when unable to distance themselves from each other in captivity (Carlsbad, 1998). Visual barriers may allow animals to deter adjust their perceived distance from conspecifics or other sources of social situation and anecdotal evidence supplies that both tigers and lions at Zoo Atlanta tend to pace in areas where another cat of human is able to been seen through a mesh or chain-link barrier ( Bashaw, 2000).

Although the addition of a visual barrier between a tiger and the potential social stimulation provided by keepers and conspecifics did result in a decrease in frequency of resting but awake and both frequency and duration of barrier-directed behaviour, it did not reduce duration of pacing and actually increased frequency of pacing. The mesh between the tiger exhibit and holding area was a less salient stimulus when the visual barrier was in place but that visual access of social stimuli was not primarily responsible for high level of pacing observed in the tiger.

The continued pacing in the exhibit area nearest the holding area suggests that the function of this area for the tiger did not change when the visual barrier was added. Lyons, Young, and Deag (1997) pointed out that edge areas of enclosures are important, “The edges of a captive environment constitute an enforced territorial boundary [and are] a source of several forms of stimulation” ( p.72). The area where post pacing occurred, where the barrier was placed, is the only location in the exhibit where the felid could engage in social interaction with the keepers and conspecifics, gain access to food, and enter den areas. Although the visual access to social stimuli is effectively limited, the addition of a visual barrier did not alter the use of this area for other stimuli. Locomotor stereotypies in felids have been closely linked to feeding (Carlsbad,1998). Therefore, it is possible that pacing in this animals was more closely tied to feeding than the ability to distance herself from social stimuli. Further Exhibit design could incorporate visual, auditory and olfactory barriers between areas in which tigers are likely to be housed along to reduce stress or excitement resulting from social stimuli transmitted between animals.

Field Notes. ( Summer 2016 )

Types of Marine mammals at the facility:
- Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin
- Common bottlenose dolphin
- Pacific white-sided dolphin
- Beluga Whale
Smaller bottle nose dolphins can grow to around 2 meters and the larger ones are usually around 3 meters.
Dolphins when stressed will jump and land on the side of their bodies or with their behind and will not approach the trainer.
Dolphins rest at the bottom of the pool.
When sensing danger , they will slap their tales violently with the surface of the water to warn other dolphins of the danger nearby.
Dolphins instinctively are scared by loud noises as well as unfamiliar objects.
Pool temp kept at 21-25 Celsius.
Chlorine levels of the pool are constantly checked throughout the day in 4 hour intervals.
Pool depth is around 7.5 meters.
Dolphins at the facility generally require 7-9 months to train.
Dolphins are trained with a whistle to follow hand gestures and are rewarded with fish.
Therefore when they is a show in the morning , the dolphins used for show will be given their meal during the show instead of before
One trainer will train one dolphin to avoid confusing the animal unless the animal has already performed for a long time and therefore will not be confused even though they are trained with a different trainer.
Dolphins born in captivity are less weary of humans and therefore will take less time to train than dolphins caught from the wild.
When bringing in wild dolphins , in order for them to adapt to the water at the park, it is vital that the water temp and salt levels are almost identical to sea water.
Dolphins are playful and curious creatures.
Fish are given to the dolphins three times a day including the fish given to them during a show.
Due to the fish being brought frozen within a block of ice ( 20 kg per block ), after defrosting the block of ice in the sink , water is injected within the fish to make up for the water content lost from freezing and vitamins are stuffed via the gills (same procedure as the sea lions)
Vitamins are given twice a day (morning and afternoon)
Vitamins are regularly counted and recorded to ensure that the department has enough to vitamins and whether they have to order more.
Vitamins are given as a supplement.
Water in the park is mixed up from scratch within the park by ordering mineral water and salt and mixing it.
Chlorine is kept at 0.25 ppm
Too much chlorine can cause the dolphins skin the peel and too little chlorine will not clean the water.
Supplements given :
- Vitamin E
- Calcium
- Calcium deficiency 300mg
- Vitamin B12
- General vitamin
- Vitamin B1
Enzyme co-factor vitamin
Big dolphins eat 15kg per day and the smaller ones , 9kg
Male and female dolphins look identical
When out of water , it can be very dangerous if the dolphin dries.

Safari World Marine Department.

I have chosen to study the enclosures and well as the residents of the Marine Department in contrast to the Tiger department as unlike the tiger department, the marine department's animals aren't as potentially dangerous therefore the enclosure design doesn't need to cater as much for the safety of the staff as it might have needed in to prior department. The Marine Department however is home to animals that are very sensitive to its surroundings unlike the tigers therefore it would be interesting to see how in this case, the design of the enclosure ensures optimum living conditions for its residents.

The different physical and behavioural requirements of each species within the facility

The common bottlenose dolphin

Maximum Length:

Male : 3.8 metres
Female : 3.7 metres

Maximum Weight:

Male : 650 KG
Female : Unknown

Diet:

Fish ( including scombroids and mugilids )
Squid
Shrimp and other crustaceans

Behaviour:

Extremely inquisitive, playful
Highly social towards other dolphins and marine life
Highly surface active

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin

Maximum Length:

Male : 2.70 metres
Female : 2.6 metres

Maximum Weight:

Male : 230 KG
Female : Unknown

Diet:

Schooling
Demersal and Reef Fish
Squid
Octopus

Behaviour:

Inquisitive, highly intelligent, adaptable predators
Usually found in small groups in the wild as few as 5 however, groups of 15 are more common
Very Social animals

Pacific White-sided dolphin

Maximum Length:

Male : 2.5 metres
Female : 2.4 metres

Maximum Weight:

Male : 200 KG
Female : Unknown

Diet:

Small schooling fish ( including Hake, Anchovies, Saury and Mackerel)
Squid

Behaviour:

Extremely agile and acrobatic
Highly Social
Often porpoise at high speeds

Beluga Whale

Maximum Length:

Male : 5.5 metres
Female : 4.3 metres

Maximum Weight:

Male : 1600 KG
Female : Unknown

Diet:

Fish ( Herring, Salmon, Cod )
Squid

Behaviour:

Have a very sophisticated sonar system
Very intelligent and sociable

The Maintenance of Satisfactory Water Conditions in Dolphinaria by A.P.L Wallis F.I.P.H.E., F.A.P H.I.

Natural sea waters have an in-built ability for self purification. This is due to waste products being consumed and degraded by plankton, bacteria and fish hence rejoining the food-chain and therefore, the water remains in a ‘pure’ state. However, as fish, plankton, algae, fungi and bacteria do not exist in the dolphinarium, such process must be replaced by mechanical and chemical processes evolved by man. Pollutants, such as dolphin excrement must be constantly removed from the water via efficient filter systems coupled with the use of chemicals such as chlorine, which oxide nitrogenous matter, coagulates fats and fish oils and disinfects the water. This process is essential to maintaining water ‘purity’ as foul water from the floor of the dolphin pool and the surface can be a place where bacteria, oil and mucoidal ‘slick’ collects. This process can be seen in action at the new dolphin pool at Brighton Aquarium. Water there is recycled every 2.25 hours. Liquid chlorine dosing has given way to in-situ production by electrolysis which has eased maintenance as well as improved efficiency.

The frequent excretions from dolphins and surplus food particles constantly taint the water in the dolphin pool and if not drawn away rapidly. Main drain outlets should be design to accommodate the heavy debris associated in dolphin pools as these particles in particular fish oils and light particles may form a ’slick’ on the surface of the water, being a source of infection unless there is constant traction of this upper layer for treatment. As this concern has produced multiple problems for engineers for many years, many engineering companies now offer highly efficient surface water skimmers. These machines are hydraulically balanced water withdrawal units each capable of extracting 600 letters per hour ( 3,000 g.p.h ) and effective in skimming slick from up to 56 sq. meters. However, large debris such as fish particles and fish scales should be retained by coarse strainers prior to reaching the filter media in order to eliminate any chance of the ‘blinding’ effect of fish scale. Removal of head debris at this stage reduces loading the filter beds and therefore reduces the demand for chemical treatment is removed from the system at frequent intervals. It is crucial that these machines are manufactured to the highest degree of precision and must be available as long as dolphins are present in the pool. Likewise, a standby pump is essential to any facility of this nature as it provides as back-up in case of any breakdowns as well as allows regular inspection and maintenance to be carried out on the main pump without disrupting services.

Complementary to water filtration is the chemical treatment. This treatment is required to oxidise organic matter, inactive or destroy harmful bacteria and other micro-organisms thus maintain water in a state of constant equilibrium which is somewhat on par with is natural counterpart. Where gaseous or alkaline chlorine is used, there is a need to compensate the change in pH. Microscopic debris and particles of a gelatinous nature sometimes require coagulation before the machine is able to filter them- for this purpose, a flocculent such as sulphate of alumina is frequently used.

Regarding this particular concern, Florida Department of Natural Resources has released a memorandum which relates to the U.S bathing beaches standard setting a maximum average Coliform Density of 1,000 MPN/100 ml. hence setting the following standards of chemical quality.

Salinity - 15 to 36 parts per thousand ( 15,000-36,000 mg/L ).

Chlorine - A maximum of 0.3 mg/L ( ppm ) as free chlorine.

Copper - A maximum of 1.0 mg/L ( ppm ) as copper sulphate.

pH - 7.8 to 8.3.

Temperature - Between 4.5°C to 32.2°C ( 40°F to 90°F ).

Example of filtration systems in Dolphin Pools

Report : Rough.

How Function affects Zoo Enclosure Design

Initial Slide Titles

Subject / Inquiry & The Reason I have chosen this Subject.

Ever since the rise of Modernism, more and more people are being made aware of animal welfare and how Zoos can provide suitable facilities that allow captive animals in live a more fulfilling life. From the exhibits themselves to the holding facilities located back of house, the design has to stem from the keepers and animals in order to be able to cater to the needs of both parties. In particular, what are the physical and behavioural needs of the animals? or where should we locate the holding facility in relationship to the enclosure to ensure the animals are able to travel to and fro without harming the keepers? All of these questions must be answered in order for the design team to be able to design an exhibit that not only provides a natural environment for its residents but double as an efficient workspace for the keepers too. For this reason, I wanted to carefully analyse each element that goes into designing an enclosure that will allow its residents to be able to act like they would in the wild as well as meet the needs of the keepers.

I have chosen to delve into Zoo Design and in particular, Enclosure Design as working at Safari World in 2016 have brought to my attention what difference an enclosure designed with the animals in mind can do in allowing efficient running and the overall welfare of the animals. For example, as the tiger enclosure is designed and built cooperatively amongst architects, landscape architects and zoo keepers themselves, the end result is an enclosure that meets the needs of the animals not only physically but psychologically ( i.e the enclosure includes a complex environment filled with stimulants for the animals ) as well as provide an efficient place where the keepers can work efficiently. Therefore, by researching more into the factors that play in designing an enclosure, I hope to be able to take this newly acquired information and implement them in the existing enclosures at my workplace.

State my Subject / Inquiry
- Zoo Design
- How Function affects Zoo Enclosure Design
What has made me want to study further into this subject
- Working at Safari World has highlighted how important it is that the enclosure is designed to cater for the needs of the animals as well as allowing the keepers to work efficiently
Key Text : John Berger’s ‘Ways of Seeing’
Why I have chosen this text
- His way of uncovering a subject is very thorough and the different aspects in which he looked at in order to land at a conclusion is very inspiring as working with animals is a very complex and detailed matter. Therefore, by using John Berger's process of uncovering a subject, I would be able to land on a strong conclusion as well.
Key Text : Jack Self’s ‘What You Should Think about Architecture’
Why I have chosen this text
- As enclosures are essentially house built for animals, I felt that by taking the structure apart and looking at them piece by piece, I will be able to really delve into the individual components that make up a good enclosure ( i.e. holding facilities, the exhibit etc. )
Initial Structure of Report
How I will further research the Tiger Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Tiger Enclosure
How I will further research the Dolphin Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Dolphin Enclosure
How I will further research the Lion Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Lion Enclosure

John Berger's Ways of Seeing

Jack Self's What You Should Think about Architecture

In What you Should Think about Architecture, Jack Self explores what he thinks is the for main criteria in which can be used to determine good architecture. He explores the notions surrounding Aesthetics, Programme, Function and Form and how modern architecture incorporates them in order to build a structure that not only caters for its residents but is pleasing to the eye as well. Aesthetics is the simply, the study of beauty and why we find something beautiful. Aesthetics concerns the ethics of style and how the way in which we doing something is motivated by personal ethics. For example, a “casual style of speech” conveys familiarity and friendliness; but not whether or not the speaker is trying to please the listener. Hence, “style” is just the “how” and never to “why”.

The Programme concerns all the actions the architecture has imagined will take place in it. Just like its use in biology and computing, programming in architecture means the causes of a person or animal to behave in a predetermined way. Programming is also where architecture and building can become separated. For example, when a family approached an architect asking her to design an extension for their home, they were told that they don’t need such thing as it wouldn’t be beneficial for the family in the long run. Furthermore, bedroom, bathroom and living room, even though often mislabelled as the “function”, are all programmes. They describe the intended activities of the space, as well as the furnishing that will further help cater for these activities.

The next criteria touched upon Jack Self is Function. Even though function comes from the Latin “fungi” meaning to perform, it would seem more appropriate for describing activity than programme. However, the idea of function as a performed action has long been overtaken by its usage within the modern world. Functionalism is the study of ergonomic actions, involving measuring efficiencies and tolerances. What is important is that function never directly dictate design, but rather sets the conditions and parameters in which the creative limit of the project abide in. For example, in Zoo Design, The Zoo Enclosure Standards published in 2001 will determine the minimum sizes of the enclosures built after that as well as outline any special needs any species have. Last but not least, Form. Form, in architecture is first of all the plan drawing. Form is the “spatial articulation of functions, programme and aesthetic”. It is only about space.

I have chosen to use What you Should Think about Architecture as one of main key texts as I feel that Zoo Enclosures even though put its residents as top priority, is still required to be a place where the visitors can enjoy viewing as well. Therefore, by looking at Zoo enclosures and how they incorporate these four criteria, I will be able to pick out the similarities in the various enclosures ( i.e the holding facilities, the exhibit furnishings ) and hence, determine what factors actually determine the designing of the enclosure. Furthermore, enclosures and houses share the same programme- which is to provide a suitable habitat for its inhabitants. Therefore, I felt that it would only be appropriate it I analyse and observe enclosure design the same way I would analyse and observe the design of a house.

Intent and Initial Structure of Report

Furthering Research at the Tiger Enclosure

In order to properly see the enclosure design in action. I have decided to use the Tiger enclosure as one of the main case studies within my report to furthermore inform my discussion. Tigers are highly intelligent and curious creatures therefore , their enclosure must be designed in order to be able to satisfy their curious minds in order to prevent stereotypic behaviour forming. Stereotypic behaviour is repetitive, invariant behaviour pattern with no obvious goal or function. This behaviour is not seen in wild animals therefore is caused from lack of stimulants leading to frustration and boredom. One of the ways the enclosure can counteract this problem is by designing less obtrusive structures in the enclosure, allow more vegetation to grow. The vegetation will then attract birds and hence, create a complex environment for the animals similar to its natural counterpart.

As tigers are also quite large animals with the males easily spanning 3 metres, they are able to jump upwards up to 4 metres and are able to leap forwards up to about 6 metres. Therefore, the enclosure must be built not only high enough, but wide enough in order to ensure that the animals will not be able to break loose and possible harm other animals and keepers. For example, prior to entering the tiger enclosures, there are two automatic gates manually controlled by staff. The automatic fence allows the staff to make sure the customer vehicles’ windows are all closed prior to entering the enclosure as well as prevent any deer from the enclosure prior from entering the tiger enclosure. Therefore in this case, the enclosure must be built not only with the animals psychological, physical and behavioural needs in mind. This enclosure also has to be built with ensuring staff safety in mind as well.

I will use this enclosure to further research my inquiry buy interviewing the keepers on their relationship with the enclosure's design and how the design of the enclosure has impacted their working whether positively or negatively. Furthermore, by working alongside the keepers, I will be able to observe how the design of the enclosure lends itself to everyday usage.

Above:

These are the first gates the customer will see when entering the tiger enclosure.

Below:

This gate is the second and last gate before the tiger enclosure and above the gate is a control room where a member of staff operates.

Furthering Research at the Dolphin Facility

In addition to analysing the tiger enclosures in order to support my argument, I have also decided to analyse the marine department facility. I have decided to analyse the dolphin facility as dolphins have highly contrasting physical and behavioural traits to tigers. Dolphins and whales are highly sociable and curious animals and therefore, their enclosure must be built in order to encourage the keepers to interact with the animals. For example, as The Dolphin Show is part of what the park offers, a close relationship between the trainer and the animal is encouraged. One trainer will be assigned a dolphin each in order to prevent the dolphins from confusing commands.

Since the marine mammals spend all their time under water, they are very susceptible to the water conditions. Unlike their natural counterpart, water in the dolphinarium does not contain plankton, algae or fungi therefore it can’t be able to “self purify”. Due to this inability to “self-purify”, water at the bottom at the pool and near the surface may become places where harmful bacteria can form therefore, water filtration and chemical treatment has to be introduced to prevent this from happening. However, these machines must be geared and set to high levels of precision as too much of one chemical can really harm the residents. For example, too high of a Chlorine count may cause the dolphins' skin to peel and even blindness. In order to prevent this from happening, the team will have to check the valves and filtering system in 4 hour intervals in order to make sure that the chlorine count doesn’t exceed 0.25 ppm. Therefore, due to having to check the valves after work hours, keepers take turn staying over at the facility. For this purpose, the facility has to be designed to not only house the animals, but the keepers as well. Furthermore, in order to reduce travelling time between the keeper’s lodge and the control room, it is important that the two are built close together. Therefore, as supposed to the tiger enclosure where the enclosure design’s priority is to ensure staff safety, the marine department facility is designed more to ensure the animals’ safety.

I will use this enclosure to further support my argument in my report by attaching a GoPro with either myself or one of the trainers when entering the water with the animals in order to study the ways in which the animals interact with the enclosure and from this footage, I will be able to pick out specific components of the enclosure and analyse the way they cater for the needs of the animals as well as the trainers.

The curved edge of the platform unsures the animals are able to come up to the platform without scratching themselves.

Furthering Research at the Lion Enclosure

I have decided in addition to the two enclosure mentioned prior, to analyse the lion enclosure within my report to furthermore inform my discussion. Lions are highly intelligent and social creatures therefore , their enclosure must be designed in order to be able to satisfy their curious minds in order to prevent stereotypic behaviour forming. Stereotypic behaviour is repetitive, invariant behaviour pattern with no obvious goal or function. This behaviour is not seen in wild animals therefore is caused from lack of stimulants leading to frustration and boredom. However, unlike tigers where one or two may stray from the pack in hopes of finding stimulant , lions tend to stick together more. Therefore, it is vital that the enclosure provides stimulants that can keep the animals mentally as well as physically stimulated to prevent frustration growing and fights breaking within the par. Even though it is not a problem now as the lions are still young, when the males grow up, there will be a need to rule the pride, therefore the enclosure must be designed for when the time comes, it can house different groups of lions as and still be able to satisfy the animals physically and psychologically as well as cater for their needs.

Even more so than tigers, lions hold to potential to be of danger to the staff therefore the two enclosures have to be designed where the animals won’t feel too restricted but the staff will not be under any danger when interacting with the animals. However, unlike the large measurements of a tiger, the male lion only grows to about just under 2.5 metres. Therefore, their quite smaller body and absence of curious nature does not require the enclosure to be designed to keep the lions out of other enclosures as much as it does in the tiger enclosures.

I will use this enclosure to support my discussion within my report in addition to the tiger enclosure as these two enclosures are adjoined and therefore, hold many similarities. Therefore, I think it may be interesting to see how such similar enclosures cater for the different needs of each species.

Lion Enclosure

State my Subject / Inquiry
- Zoo Design
- How Function affects Zoo Enclosure Design
What has made me want to study further into this subject
- Working at Safari World has highlighted how important it is that the enclosure is designed to cater for the needs of the animals as well as allowing the keepers to work efficiently
Why Zoo Enclosure Design ?
- My process of how I ended up basing my project on Zoo Enclosure Design
- How I have landed here from looking at Zoo Design in General
Key Text : John Berger’s ‘Ways of Seeing’
Why I have chosen this text
- His way of uncovering a subject is very thorough and the different aspects in which he looked at in order to land at a conclusion is very inspiring as working with animals is a very complex and detailed matter. Therefore, by using John Berger's process of uncovering a subject, I would be able to land on a strong conclusion as well.
Key Text : Jack Self’s ‘What You Should Think about Architecture’
Why I have chosen this text
- As enclosures are essentially house built for animals, I felt that by taking the structure apart and looking at them piece by piece, I will be able to really delve into the individual components that make up a good enclosure ( i.e. holding facilities, the exhibit etc. )
How I will further research the Tiger Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Tiger Enclosure
How I will further research the Dolphin Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Dolphin Enclosure
How I will further research the Lion Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Lion Enclosure

Slide Titles Revised.

After re-reading the brief as well as discussing with Jordan, I felt as though I may have not discussed around my chosen subject enough in my presentation. Therefore, I have chosen to take out the slide where I talk about my intent concerning the report, which is to take the newly acquired information that I will uncover as a result of researching and apply it to a Tiger Sanctuary back in Thailand, and instead, talk further about how I have ended up deciding to base my report around Zoo Enclosure Design as supposed to Zoo Design in general. I wanted to talk more about how I have ended up basing my report of this subject as I felt that by having a second pair of eyes look at my development, I will be able to look at my process from a different point of view and maybe if there were potential points of interest concerning the subject that I have missed out on, they maybe able to help point that out.

Why Zoo Enclosure Design ?

I started looking at Zoo Design in general because initially, I felt that there were so many more factors that play into how “good” a Zoo Design is. Since the mid-20 century, the environment awareness and human right ethics has become more wildly known, giving way to animal rights as well. In 1950, Hediger wrote “Wild Animals in Captivity” which opened the public’s eyes to the idea of practices and exhibit design based on an animal’s natural history. As well as advances in healthcare, animals in captivity began to be treated for both physical and mental health. Whether it be how much interaction between the animals and the visitors the design allows, to how the design aids efficient back of house is running. These factors all play a crucial part in making up a zoo that not only allows the animals to feel natural in an unnatural environment but provide them with the best quality of life as well.

Much like Jack Self in ‘What You Should Think about Architecture’, I felt that Zoo Design was such a large topic that without breaking it down or in my case, narrowing down and specifying my report on one certain section. It would be easy for me to feel overwhelmed by how much information is available and therefore may prevent me from really building as strong foundation to my arguments within my report. As I was so inspired how Jack Self has approached architecture, I felt that it would benefit me if I were to approach Zoo Architecture the same way- by analysing the Aesthetics, Programme, Function and Form. I wanted to start my researching based on these four criteria, as Zoo Design, specifically Zoo Enclosure Design are built to provide space for captive animals to live in, and much like humans, they require architecture that will allow them to behave naturally on a day-to-day basis. For example, a person will normally start their day by washing up, therefore, there must be a toilet located somewhere in the house, the same goes for animals, as tigers are natural born swimmers, it is important that an enclosure offers a pond in order to provide them with an alternative way to exercise. Therefore, I felt that by studying/delving further into the concept of Zoo Enclosure Design, and the factors that affect it, I will be able to really determine the main elements that allow these designs to house such complex creatures. Of course, it is never easy to exactly determine what a felid ( big cat ) requires within its enclosure as research about its behaviour is very limited. Therefore, as well as looking at behavioural studies done, it would be interesting to include case studies within my research, the study of the relationship of the inhabitants and the design of a captive environment.

As I have already chosen to write my report in an extended essay/ dissertation format. I felt that it would be nice to have three main chapters in my report. I wanted to write my report based on the extended essay format as I felt that there were a lot of animal behavioural studies, experiments, theories as well as case studies that go into designing a Zoo. By allowing myself to write in this format, I will be able to produce this report similar to that of an academic paper and hence include only information I deemed necessary in allowing me to reach a strong argument. Therefore, with writing about what affects/determines Zoo Enclosure design in mind, I felt that it would only be appropriate that I write in this format. I have decide to base my chapters on the factors that I felt are crucial in designing an enclosure. Supported by case studies, I will be able to delve into the different ways in which the design provides for its inhabitants as well as how it caters for the keepers.

Introduction : The History and Future of Zoo Enclosure Design
Chapter One : Zoo Enclosure Design; What makes a Good Design ?
- Aethetics, Programme, Function and Form
Chapter Two : How Zoo Enclosure Design provide for it’s Inhabitants
- Marine Enclosure
- Tiger Enclosure
Chapter Three : How Zoo Enclosure Design Works alongside the Keepers
- Marine Enclosure
- Tiger Enclosure
Conclusion : What really Determines Zoo Enclosure Design

"A Funny thing happens when you put animals in a natural environment, they act natural." - San Diego Zoo

In Ways Of Seeing, John Berger examines how people has always used imagery as part of their language i.e how me we see things before we can talk about them with words. ‘Seeing comes before words. The child looks and recognises before it can speak’. (J.Berger, 2009. Bookcover) The idea behind this is that the visual world is what creates the world that we describe with words. To illustrate, Berger proceeds to delve deeper into this concept by showing an example of Vincent Van Gogh’s ‘Wheatfield with Crows’. Berger allowed us to examine and come up with what we think Van Gogh may be trying to convey in this painting then proceeded to informs us that it ‘is the last picture that Van Gogh painted before he killed himself.’ (J.Berger, 2009. P.21). Where at first, all we took from the painting was sun and a farmers harvest, after given such information that grounds the painting and suggests the inspiration for it, we now see something more sinister. What John Berger was trying to achieve by this example was how the context of a painting can ultimately change our view of it.

In addition to suggesting how the context surrounding an image may alter and dictate the way we perceive the image, Berger believes that the way we see things is affected ultimately by our knowledge and beliefs. And because of such knowledge and beliefs, we judge art by our own understanding of concepts like “ beauty, trust, civilisation, form, status” and “taste” ( 2009 P.4 ). To illustrate, Berger then proceeds to show schoolchildren a reproduction of a Caravaggio. The comments were “ I think it could be they stole the food and one of them saying they’re not going to eat it, it’s stolen food.”. This suggests that children connect images no matter what background, directly to with their own experiences. One child even interpreted the subject in the middle of the painting to be Jesus as the man in the painting to him appeared to be “[he’s] in the centre of the table and looks like he might be a leader of some kind.” this comment coupled with the fact that most of the girls suspected the subject to be female and most of the boys suspected the same subject to be male furthermore illustrates that unless told otherwise, children will directly relate any given imagery to their own knowledge and experiences.

This is why I have chosen Ways of Seeing as one of my main key texts and have chosen to talk about these two examples because Berger has included within the process of trying the decipher how images are perceived by the viewers. Just like images, zoos and their design are perceived by the public and whether positive or negative, the public will have some sort of opinion on zoos and without the support of the public, zoos won’t be able to survive. For example, unless the member of the public has worked at a zoo before, they may not be able to perceive the zoo the way the zoo has intended to be perceived. Just like in the case of the schoolchildren and the reproduction of Caravaggio, most members of the public will not likely know of the intent or inspiration of the design or any context thats surrounds the design therefore proceeding to perceive said design to their own knowledge and experiences. I am really inspired by the way Berger has explored this concept via surveying and chosen schoolchildren as well as adults. And, by using these methods, pick apart and explore views on zoo design. Therefore, I feel that if I approach my subject similarly to how he approaches his, I would be able to compare the importance of the different elements in Zoo Design from the publics perspective as well as the Zoo’s -as both opinions are of equal importance.

Slide Titles Revised Again.

State my Subject / Inquiry
- Zoo Design
- How Programme affects Zoo Enclosure Design
What has made me change my inquiry to Function as supposed to Programme
- Talking to the owner of Safari World has revealed certain limitations concerning information that too revealing to public therefore, a limited amount of information surrounding the running of these enclosures may not be sufficient enough in order for me to conduct a strong enough argument
- Leading me to focus more on the animals as the different departments located at Safari World all house animals that are very different both behaviourally and physically
Essay Style
- As the information obtained throughout my research are mostly academic papers done by researchers, it is only appropriate if my report follows a similar template
Key Text : John Berger’s ‘Ways of Seeing’
- Why I have chosen this text
  - His way of uncovering a subject is very thorough and the different aspects in which he looked at in order to land at a conclusion is very inspiring as working with animals is a very complex and detailed matter. Therefore, by using John Berger's process of uncovering a subject, I would be able to land on a strong conclusion as well.
Key Text : Jack Self’s ‘What You Should Think about Architecture’
- Why I have chosen this text
  - As enclosures are essentially house built for animals, I felt that by taking the structure apart and looking at them piece by piece, I will be able to really delve into the individual components that make up a good enclosure ( i.e. holding facilities, the exhibit etc. )
Continuation of "Key Text : Jack Self’s ‘What You Should Think about Architecture’"
How I will further research the Tiger Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Tiger Enclosure
How I will further research the Dolphin Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Dolphin Enclosure
How I will further research the Lion Enclosure
- Why have I chosen to look at the Lion Enclosure
Moving on/ Plan of Action
- Survey Monkey in both English and Thai

I have decided to once again revisit my slides as I felt that I wasn't using this opportunity to discuss my ideas to its full potential. Therefore, I have decided to instead of using 2 slides for my key texts, I will only allocate one slide for each of my key texts in order to allow space for me to talk about my chosen essay style and my intentions with the information uncovered through researching. I have also decided to talk more in detail about how I have come to look at how function affects enclosure design when I initially wanted to base my inquiry on the programme. I want to delve into further detail on this process as I feel that there is potential where I have either missed a potentially interesting area of inquiry and by discussing it, another student can pick up on it.

Final Presentation.

1/10

What is Zoo Design?
- Contrary to popular belief, Design for zoos include much more than "enclosure design". In addition to animal exhibit spaces, it is vital to consider behind-the-scenes management and support areas, associated public spaces and tactical approaches to story-telling, including high- or low-tech interpretive media.
- Naturalistic , authentic designs show visitors the importance of habitat and animals and habitat are interdependent
- Main goal of modern zoos is to promote conservation and educate visitors
- With this in mind, I wanted to focus on how the design and allocation of each facility in the zoo in relation to each other can help the keepers run the zoo efficiently whilst still catering for the needs of the visitors.
- For example, the water condition at marine pavilions are very crucial in maintaining animal welfare and therefore the facility in which houses the filtration systems must be close enough to the keepers lodge that the keepers can access th machines easily and efficiently.
- However, after talking to the owner of Safari World Thailand, it was brought to my attention that certain limitations concerning information are too revealing to the public therefore, a limited amount of information surrounding the running of these enclosures may not be sufficient enough in order for me to conduct a strong enough argument.
Moving over to Function
- Promoting animal welfare is one of the main goals modern zoological parks must assume as a priority.
- The design must stem from the animals themselves , as this design is directly affects them, without proper exhibits, holding facilities and appropriate back of house support, the design is not only inadequate but useless. Much like how architect often talk to the client before designing an the client’s house, the zoo designer must take into account what the behavioural and physical needs of the animals are as well as what maintenance requirements are needed to be taken into account.
- For example, when housing cetaceans i.e dolphins and whales, there is always a general idea that “bigger is better” however, Atlantic bottlenose dolphins do not like deep waters and are often observed in the wild in waters less than 3 metres deep. Indicating that the dolphins resided in the shallower areas and only moved to deeper waters when food is scarce. Therefore, even though captive Atlantic bottlenose dolphins where provided a total of 5 pools with depts varying between 3.96 m to 8.23 m, the dolphins were observed to spend time in the moderately sized pools most, then smaller pools then the largest pool least.The dolphins did not choose pools in proportion to any of these dimensions i.e larger pool dimensions paralleling greater use, nor did the dolphins behave in a way that indicated no preferences between depths and locations. Instead, the dolphins had preferences. These preferences were not correlated with increasing sizes or proportions but on the dimension of overall depth.
- If animal needs not met :
  - Stereotypic behaviour, a pattern of movement such as pacing and head bobbing that is performed repeatedly, relatively irrelevant in form and has no apparent function or goal are really seen performed by wild animals therefore re often considered an indication of stress. These behaviours are often a result of an accumulation of causes for example, these behaviours may arise when an animal is physically restrained from moving to a desired place. Stereotypies may also stem from other behavioural or psychological stresses such as boredom, physical restraint, fear or frustration.
  - Unsuccessful reintroduction to the wild due to loss of natural behaviour crucial to surviving in the wild. Animals in zoos with lack of stimulants that encourage and allow natural behaviours such as foraging and hunting are 4 times more likely to die from starvation aften being released into the wild than any other location
Essay Style - Extended essay
- Takes a theoretical or historical topic that addresses an aspect of visual culture and uses a writing style similar to that of an academic paper. Topics could involve areas such as: fine art and post- colonial theory; contemporary film and narrative; or fashion and identity. Your research would usually be based around reading and understanding secondary and primary texts on your subject and, where appropriate, visual analysis.
- As the information obtained throughout my research are mostly academic papers done by researchers, it is only appropriate if my report follows a similar template
- Research papers such as 'Effects of Pool Size on Free-Choice Selections by Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphins' by Melissa R.Shayan, 'Containment Facilities Standard for Zoos' publish in New Zealand in 2007 and 'The Maintenance of Satisfactory Water Conditions in Dolphinaria' by Corporate Public Health Engineer to name a few.
John Berger’s Ways of Seeing
- Examines how people has always used imagery as part of their language i.e how me we see things before we can talk about them with words. ‘Seeing comes before words. The child looks and recognises before it can speak’.
- The idea behind this is that the visual world is what creates the world that we describe with words.
- An example of Vincent Van Gogh’s ‘Wheatfield with Crows’. Berger allowed us to examine and come up with what we think Van Gogh may be trying to convey in this painting then proceeded to informs us that it ‘is the last picture that Van Gogh painted before he killed himself.’ Where at first, all we took from the painting was sun and a farmers harvest, after given such information that grounds the painting and suggests the inspiration for it, we now see something more sinister. What John Berger was trying to achieve by this example was how the context of a painting can ultimately change our view of it.
- In addition to suggesting how the context surrounding an image may alter and dictate the way we perceive the image, Berger believes that the way we see things is affected ultimately by our knowledge and beliefs. And because of such knowledge and beliefs, we judge art by our own understanding of concepts like “ beauty, trust, civilisation, form, status” and “taste” ( 2009 P.4 ).
- Berger then proceeds to show schoolchildren a reproduction of a Caravaggio. The comments were “ I think it could be they stole the food and one of them saying they’re not going to eat it, it’s stolen food.”. This suggests that children connect images no matter what background, directly to with their own experiences. One child even interpreted the subject in the middle of the painting to be Jesus as the man in the painting to him appeared to be “[he’s] in the centre of the table and looks like he might be a leader of some kind.” this comment coupled with the fact that most of the girls suspected the subject to be female and most of the boys suspected the same subject to be male furthermore illustrates that unless told otherwise, children will directly relate any given imagery to their own knowledge and experiences.
- This is why I have chosen Ways of Seeing as one of my main key texts and have chosen to talk about these two examples because Berger has included within the process of trying the decipher how images are perceived by the viewers. Just like images, zoos and their design are perceived by the public and whether positive or negative, the public will have some sort of opinion on zoos and without the support of the public, zoos won’t be able to survive. For example, unless the member of the public has worked at a zoo before, they may not be able to perceive the zoo the way the zoo has intended to be perceived. Just like in the case of the schoolchildren and the reproduction of Caravaggio, most members of the public will not likely know of the intent or inspiration of the design or any context thats surrounds the design therefore proceeding to perceive said design to their own knowledge and experiences. I am really inspired by the way Berger has explored this concept via surveying and chosen schoolchildren as well as adults. And, by using these methods, pick apart and explore views on zoo design. Therefore, I feel that if I approach my subject similarly to how he approaches his, I would be able to compare the importance of the different elements in Zoo Design from the publics perspective as well as the Zoo’s -as both opinions are of equal importance.
Jack Self’s “What you should think about architecture”
- Aesthetics simply, is the study of beauty. Specifically the reason to why we find something beautiful and the philosophy of whether beauty exists objectively. This makes it very similar to ethics , where both fields work hard to understand how humans decided whether or not the object in which they are observing falls into which category. Both of them concern value judgements and moral priorities and therefore unlike logic and some philosophies, aesthetics in not based on rules. Aesthetics and ethics are rather about balancing subjective and objective inputs in which results in a common personal decision.
  - Elephant house, Zurich Zoo = Roof inspired by the light filtering through tree branches
- Programme within architecture is all the imagined activities that take place within a building. The word despite being used in this context, still remains the same definition as if it were to be used in biology or computing meaning the causes for a person or animal to behave in a predetermined way. Although programming when used in this context may sound sinister, the way in which some animals in nature behave the way they do is conceptually identical to descriptions of how humans organise their spaces and the movement within them. Like how we can dictate the operations of a computer, we can predetermine the possible behaviour of the population through designation and affordances of space.
  - Giraffe House, Auckland Zoo = Slope in building follows natural built of animal and the 3 m high side of the building allows the keepers to safely observe the animals
- Similarly to Programme, Functionalism is the study of ergonomic actions, involving measuring efficiencies and tolerances. Today, when we look at a building’s function we must take into account all the invisible parameters that cause it to exist not only just the concerning its occupancy. Finance, planning, regulations, standards and environmental factors are all functional parameters that influence programme and form.
  - Lion George, Melbourne Zoo = Prior to constructing the enclosure, an animal behaviourist is called in to calculate the requirements of the glass in order to be able to withstand a lion running at it at full speed
- When considering form, architectures have to take into account the difference between an infill building that fits tightly within its' site boundaries (leaving no unoccupied space on the site, except perhaps a defined outdoor courtyard) and a freestanding building located within a large expanse of parking. Without the aid of other space-defining forms such as trees, fences, level changes, and so forth, it is very difficult for a large space to be defined or satisfactorily articulated by most singular forms. Some aspects that are usually taken into account when designing are the shape, mass, scale and proportion of the whole building.
  - Wildlife Observation, Bern Zoo = Built of building combined with its finish make sure minimal disturbance to wild animals
Tiger Department
- Bengal Tiger ( max. 3.3 m ) + Siberian Tiger ( max. 3.7 m )
- Jumps upwards of up to 4 m and leaps forwards of up to 6 m
- Curious creatures and therefore if not satisfies with enrichment and the hunting motivation still remains after feeding. All the pent up frustration may lead to the development of stereotypic behaviour such as pacing.
- Safety is very important when dealing with carnivores
- For example, the double metal gates located before entering the tiger enclosures ensure no tiger is able to escape as well as keep other safari animals away from the tigers. The staff on the tower above the gate is also able to monitor the amount of cars entering the enclosure as well as their speeds. In case of emergencies like tigers escaping, the metal fences are closed in between enclosures to prevent the animal from entering another enclosure and coming face to face with lions.
- Plan of action:
  - GoPro : follow routine, mount GoPro on head of staff to record both staff and animal interaction to the enclosure design and/or furnishing
  - Talk to ranger and keepers in importance of facility location i.e keeper office located behind Zone 2 ensures easy access and minimal disturbance to customers
Dolphin Department
- Chosen due to difference in both behavioural and physical needs of animals in contrast to the tigers
- Due to the animals house being cetaceans, the animals spend most of their time under water therefore are very sensitive to any changes in water therefore apart from the regular water filtering, chemical treatment of the water is also used.
- Too high chlorine levels cause skin peeling, too low doesn't efficiently clean the pool.
- Chlorine levels checked every 4 hours to ensure the level doesn't exceed 0.3ppm as recommended by the Florida Department of Resources as stated in the 'The Maintenance of Satisfactory Water Conditions in Dolphinaria' by Corporate Public Health Engineer
- Plan of action:
  - GoPro : follow routine from morning to evening, during show (?), during training and routine cleaning in order to get a better view of the part of the facility that is submerged under water
  - Learn more about the behaviour of these animals and how certain routines are carried out
  - Talk to colleague that helped design the facility about how he has come to a conclusion such as this and the pros and cons
Lion Department
- African Lions ( max 2.5 m )
- ' Preliminary Evaluation of Environmental Enrichment Techniques for African Lions' by D.M.Powell
- Plan of action:
  - Same as tiger department with addition of obseriving animal behaviour
Moving Forward
- Find any study papers done by Thai professors
- Survey Monkey in both English and Thai on Enclosure size Preference vs. Visuality of Animals as well as the Aesthetics v.s. Naturalistic
- Analyse more study papers on Lions and Dolphins

Moving Forward.

Moving forward, I think I might have enough research concerning the reasons behind the design aspect of zoo enclosures however, not enough on the design alone therefore, from this point forward, when analysing further enclosures, I would focus more on the design aspect of the enclosures. For example, the pros and cons of each enclosure design and detailed case studies on the designs that worked and the others that don’t. Furthermore, I think that it would be helpful in grounding me and making sure I stay focused on the design aspect of the enclosures if I were to keep Jack Self’s four criteria as well as John Berger’s ideas in the foreground and when building up argument in the future.

It would also be interesting for me to interview Jack Self as Peter felt that Jack Self would be interested that I have decided to look at Zoo Architecture Design through his lenses and by interviewing him, I would be able to acquire his ideology, his views on current enclosure designs as well as what he thinks makes up a good enclosure. Furthermore, as one of Jack Self’s criteria concerns space and how space in and around the architecture were to be taken into account when designing a built, reading “Poets of Space” by Gaston Bachelard may also help me understand even further the importance of space and how the use of it can make or break a design. In the same way, as I have already read and analyse John Berger’s “Why Look at Animals?’ prior, it would be very interesting to analyse a contrasting opinion on Zoos by reading “In Praise of the Zoo” by Alain De Botton.

Feedback.

After presenting, I had the chance to listen to my group’s views on my chosen subject. Even though I was really nervous a failed to touch upon a lot of things I wanted to mention due to having too much information for 10 slides, I was still glad about being able to talk about the subject to a group of people who had in some way a similar field of interest. What stood out most to one of my group members were my point on how the Giraffe House in Aukland was built following and inspired by the natural slope of the animal. It was a perfect example of how “form follows function”. Another group member also said that it could be potentially interesting for me to highlight on the views the public have on animal welfare and elaborate on the juxtaposition about people also existing in the enclosure alongside the animals , even if it was just for a short amount of time and how the design has to also cater for its visitors as well as its residents.

Similarly, Catrin also liked the idea of how architecture design in zoos work almost in a paradoxical way in how houses usually symbolise privacy and safety and therefore, not often design to be looked in to; however, in zoos, buildings are designed specifically to looked in to. For example, the Lubetkin Penguin Pool at London Zoo, even though does not provide anywhere near an appropriate environment for its penguins, provide a perfect viewing platform where its visitors can observe the animals. Therefore, Catrin suggested looking places where the architecture works and where the architecture doesn’t ( i.e the Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin pool) and how the design can look aesthetically pleasing to the visitors as still be able to serve as a useful environment to its inhabitants.

Furthermore, like Catrin, Peter really liked the idea of using the 4 criteria set by Jack Self alongside John Berger in looking at Zoo architecture and referring back to the Lubetkin Penguin Pool, he suggested that it would be interesting to see how the context in this case tallies up against the ideology or the commissioning process as well as the inspiration behind such a forward build. However, what has been brought to my attention is that even though I have read a lot of information and they felt that I knew a lot in terms of the animal welfare and requirement, it still need to make sure that I focus on the design and aesthetic portion of Zoo architecture. Furthermore, with how well Jack Self’s criteria seem to ground John Berger’s “Ways of Seeing”, Peter said that it would be really beneficial and would really help me keep my focus on design by keeping the criteria in the foreground and quote from them in the process of building up my argument and if possible, interview Jack Self. Peter as well as Catrin has also recommended me Poets of Space by Gaston Bachelard, In Praise of the Zoo by Alain De Botton (as it would be interesting to analyse an opposing view of Zoos in comparison to John Berger’s negative “Why look at Animals?”), and The Object Stares Back by James Elkins.

Notes / What I plan to cover

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Overall thematic organisation of zoos was developed by Carl Hagenbeck in 1907. Storylines, narratives which add interest and continuity to groups of displays, emerged from simple storytelling and theatrical venues. Both themes and storylines had major impacts on zoo displays through their dramatic use at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida, USA. The use of themes and storylines, like cultural resonance, have added more depth to the concept of immersion design in recent years.

The storylines "...place each exhibit and related groups of exhibits in a consistent environmental context. They establish fundamentals and prescribe an approach which when understood and followed will produce exhibits appropriate and responsive to their intent."

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Theme and Storyline

Trends in Animal Exhibition.

Immersion Design

Cultural Resonance

Activity Based Design

Affiliate Design

Rotation Design.

Function.

Elephant House, Zurich Zoo

Giraffe House, Auckland Zoo

Analysis

Analysis

ZSL London Zoo Sumatran Tiger Enclosure

Orag-Utan Exhibit, Perth Zoo

Öhringen Petting Zoo, Germany

Research.

Aesthetics.

Programme.

Form.

Analysis

Analysis

Modernism.

Exerts from The Zoo Enclosure Standards, Switzerland published 2001

Exerts from Containment Facilities Standard for Zoo Animals, New Zealand published 2007

Lion Gorge Melbourne Zoo

Mood Board.

Enclosure for African Apes, Wilhelma Zoo

Wildlife Observation Pavilion Zoo Berne

Brief Background on African Lions.

The Lion Department.

Preliminary Evaluation of Environmental Enrichment Techniques for African Lions by D.M Powell.

Studying Dolphin Behaviour in a Semi-Natual Marine Enclosure : Couldn't we do it all in the Wild? by Amir Perelberg

An Echolocation Visualisation and Interface System for dolphin Research by Mats Amundin

Wild Tigers in Captivity: A Study of the Effects of the Captive Environment on Tiger Behavior by Leigh Elizabeth Pitsko

Views regarding Zoos Providing Tigers with Live Prey - Survey conducted on friends and family.

Feeding Live Prey to Zoo Animals:

Response of Zoo Visitors in Switzerland by Lauren Cottle

Influence of social upbringing on the activity pattern of captive lion cubs: Benefits of behavioural enrichment by Sibonokuhle Ncube

Effects of Pool Size on Free-Choice Selections by Atlantic Bottlenosed Dolphins at One Zoo Facility by Melissa R. Shyan

Furnishings within the Enclosure.

Soft Furnishings ( Soft-Technology )

Hard Furnishings ( Hard-Technology )

Field Notes ( Summer 2016 )

Safari World Tiger Department.

Brief Background on Bengal Tigers.

Brief Background on Siberian Tigers.

Bengal and Siberian Tigers

Zoo Enclosure Design.

Do Naturalistic Enclosure Provide Suitable Environments for Zoo Animals?

What makes a good enclosure ?

"Animals come first, from the size of their exhibit to the amount of enrichment they are given, we are the voice of the animals. It is up to the designer to push, no, to demand that the most appropriate exhibit be designed on each and every project, no matter it’s scale or cost."

Zoo Guidelines for keeping large Felids in Captivity

Bringing Nature into the Zoo: Inexpensive Solutions for Zoo Environments by David Hancocks

The Effects Enclosure Size on the Behaviour Patterns of Captive Tigers ( Panthera tigris ) by Hsin-I Hsieh

The Effects of Physical Characteristics of the Environment and Feeding Regime on the Behaviour of Captive Felids by Jason Lyons

Behavioural Analysis of Captive Tigers : A water pool makes the difference by Cristina Biolatti

ZSL London Zoo's Tiger Territory.

Looking at Zoo Design through the Lens of Jack Self.

Land of the Lions at ZSL London Zoo

Why Look at Animals ?

Ways of Seeing

Safari World Lion Department.

Enclosure Facilities

Environmental Effects on the Behaviour of Zoo Housed Lions and Tigers, with a Case Study of the Effects of a Visual Barrier on Pacing by Meredith J. Bashaw

Field Notes. ( Summer 2016 )

Safari World Marine Department.

The different physical and behavioural requirements of each species within the facility

The common bottlenose dolphin

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin

Pacific White-sided dolphin

Beluga Whale

The Maintenance of Satisfactory Water Conditions in Dolphinaria by A.P.L Wallis F.I.P.H.E., F.A.P H.I.

Report : Rough.

How Function affects Zoo Enclosure Design

Initial Slide Titles

Subject / Inquiry & The Reason I have chosen this Subject.

John Berger's Ways of Seeing

Jack Self's What You Should Think about Architecture

Intent and Initial Structure of Report